Rationale
The ceramics classes in my school have a unique set of teaching challenges. There is no textbook, no curriculum guide and comparably fewer resources available for students. This has traditionally limited the amount of investigative study and historical reference that have been applied to the class. As at result, the course has developed into one with a strong emphasis on technique. Working in a school system which places a great deal of importance on standardized testing, I am compelled to use strategies that will not only improve the meaning in their artwork but enhance other skills that are appropriate to their academic classes. In as much, I see myself not specifically as an art teacher but rather as a teacher whose incumbent responsibility is to improve the quality of student in our school as a whole. As I continue to develop more structure and historical content to the class, I find myself considering a number of questions about the nature of ceramics and how this study can achieve the goals I listed above. Naturally, I prefer to start at the beginning. How does art evolve in the world? How do we understand art? Once we address these question, we can begin to look at specific questions related to pottery. How did people learn to make pottery and why? What function did these early works serve? What techniques did the ancient potters use to create their wares? When was the concept of a kiln introduced and how did early kilns function?
Each of these questions are addressed below with some indications how they will be used in a studio art class. Materials other than what would be in a standard ceramics studio would include art history prints / books and also handouts related to writing skills.
How does art evolve in the world?
Of course one could select any number of ancient cultures in which to address these questions. I suggest looking at what is generally considered to be the first civilization in America, the Olmec, because my students seem to have little knowledge of prehistoric influence on Western art. For example the art history course I teach, the curriculum emphasizes the prehistoric times in Europe. I will use the familiar images of ancient Egyptian and Greek pottery as a link to my overarching goal of finding parallels in our world. As we look at these parallels in different cultures I can begin questioning my students about the nature of art as a vehicle to interpret the world we live in.
What is generally considered to be the first civilization in America, the Olmec "moved a veritable mountain of earth to create a plateau above the plain, and there they planted a city, the ruins of which today are known as San Lorenzo" (Wilford 2005). The pottery that exists from the Olmec dates from as early as 900BC. They inhabited Mexico's south Gulf coast lowlands during the period of 1500-400 BC, along the Rio Coatzacoalcos river where human settlements are still favored. What is known about the Olmec is based on a relatively small amount of art and architectural complexes that appear to the outsider as unformed mounds of earth. High acidity and humidity have "wrought havoc and archaeological deposits, destroying not only the ancient bones remains but even ceramics" (Coe 131). Incredibly, anthropologists and archeologist are still able to recreate for us is a thriving culture which developed social, political, economic, and religious factions.(Diehl, 2)
It is because of the development of these factions that the art of the Olmec in and of itself significant to that specific time. In order for these people to become proficient in carving the small yet elaborate jadeite figures, create complex patterns on the surface of their pottery, and carve large stone monuments — the most famous being the colossal heads, they needed time. I would not expect students to be able to create a complex relief carving without practice and in order to do that you need time! So the idea that this culture was developing specific roles for people thus allowing artists to develop their skills, helps us understand how art begins to develop in early civilizations.
How do we come to understand and learn from art?
The Olmec colossal heads range in size from 6 to 10 ft and are carved from basalt boulders quarried from distant mountains. Basalt is a fine-grained rock of volcanic origin and difficult to carve because of its density. Scholars believe that at one point all the colossal monuments were on the plateau of San Lorenzo facing out towards the lowland river valleys. They are considered to be portraits of individual rulers. Each of the portraits are adorned with headdresses which sit low on the forehead and carry an insignia particular to the individual portrayed. (Coe 293) On Monument 5 in particular, the headdress carries an interwoven design as well as the design of two flattened jaguar paws which appear to wrap around the head.
The seated Khafre sculpture from Dynasty IV of ancient Egypt shares many characteristics with the colossal heads in regard to subject matter, material, and form. The Khafre sculpture depicts the ruler of the Old Dynasty from 2520-2494 B.C. The work is made of diorite, like basalt, a volcanic material which was costly and rare. Egyptian scribes used basalt in medium sized statues and carvings, since it is very hard to carve large pieces. The Rosetta Stone was carved from basalt. The representation of form is where the connections to the Olmec colossal heads are most compelling and what will our focus for examining parallels. The artists interpretation of these men leaves little doubt that they are in fact, very powerful men who are connected to the spirit world in a very personal way. Both Monument 5 and Khafre have their respective symbols (their link to the spirit world), the jaguar and the falcon, protecting them in a close, intimate fashion. Strong, geometric lines create a sense of authority and dignity that would certainly be reassuring to the people of each respective culture. The obvious lack of negative space in both sculptures subtly reinforces the physical strength of the ruler and at the same time creates a heavy, solid form which would be difficult for an enemy to break or disfigure.
These cultures did not exist in locations anywhere near each other, nor were the works made at the same time. There is no evidence to suggest that Olmec people were influenced by any other culture; in fact European influences in the New World don't appear until the Spanish invasion in 1519. What does this tell us about cultures and human inclination towards art making? Helping students reveal similar patterns in which the world is connected through art in order to develop relevant perceptions of people in their specific historical context directly relates to my overarching goal for this unit. Additionally, the colossal heads will be used in our first comparative analysis with a work from Western art. We will examine the parallels that exist between them in an to attempt to make some connections within students own work, their world, and themselves.
How did people learn to make pottery and why?
Last year I developed a unit of study on the types of clay bodies used in ceramic production today. Students analyze various components in clay, and how those ingredients affect the clay body. They are able to manipulate and handful of different type's clay bodies such as porcelain, stoneware and raku in order to understand and reinforce what they read. It was during the first quarter of the school year when I covered this topic and I suppose it makes sense that it is here where we will consider the question, how pottery was invented.
The very first ceramic vessel may well have been made by accident. A corded design appears on much of the ancient ceramic ware that has been discovered. This has led to a theory about the origins of ceramics. The theory holds that unfired clay may have first been used by ancient peoples to coat baskets designed to hold small seeds or grain. One day, such a basket was accidentally thrown into the fire. The basket itself burned, but its clay coating emerged as a hard and useful vessel. (Wormer 14) Clays vitrify at various temperatures depending upon their composition. It is interesting to note that in a study of over 100 pieces of prehistoric ceramics, over half the wares showed no evidence of vitrification. Simply stated, this is when the heat converts the clay glass. The fact that the wares discovered that showed no signs vitrification does not mean they were not functional, but it would have significantly shortened the life of the ware.
I must add that in the many years I have been firing kilns owned by the public school, non-vitrified ware is not exclusive to prehistoric ceramics! There are inevitably problems with old kilns and the result is a number of works, at various stages, sitting around the ceramics studio that can be used as samples in such class discussions. Students are able to understand and use the term vitrify in its proper context, once they have handled works and see the it at its various stages.
Most scholars believe the invention of pottery to have occurred in a number of places independently. As early societies were beginning to cultivate crops, it is assumed the greater the need, in fact perhaps a necessity, arose for the use of pottery. Of course the migrant tribes would have had difficulty transporting pottery. In general, basic utilitarian pottery is relatively large, heavy, and breaks easily. It also makes sense then why basketry predates pottery. The earliest settled societies that were agrarian were those that settled along the sea coast and rivers. The earliest known pottery vessels used for cooking, storing, serving food, and carrying water were found on the southern coast of Japan and roughly dates 12,000 to 13, 000 years ago. There is a notable impression of a cord rolled around a stick.
What function did these early works serve?
It is from this knowledge that a fair assumption could be made that most ancient pottery served a utilitarian role in societies, namely food preparation and storage. This is not always the case. The proposition that utility was the dominate role of pottery is bit shaky if we consider 30,000 years ago the manufacturing of figurines and other ritual objects have been discovered.
A small, figure made from clay and bone ash was found intact at a Czechoslovakian kiln site dates from 27,000 BC. It is one of the earliest "Venus" figures, with large breasts, angular shoulders, and legs tapering down to small, rounded points. The top of the head has four holes made to hold flowers, leaves or feathers, symbolizing the successful changing of the seasons, which were attributed to the goddesses' fertility. (Shatz ) Other "Venus" figures appear at this time, each personifies a sense of magical charm of the survival of the race.
At the San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan archeological site, over 700 ceramic figurines and their fragments were discovered. (Coe 259) They are more difficult to categorize than the Venus figures because they are each so stylistically unique. Ballplayers, one-eyed Gods, and what appear to be individual portraits are reoccurring themes in the effigies found. The information of where these figures were originally placed is unknown; the function of them was probably for use in household rituals. "The One-eyed Gods and ballplayers in particular are suspiciously cultish and may in fact be associated with the ballgame ritual." (Coe 260)
What techniques did the ancient potters use to create their wares?
These ritual objects as well as the utilitarian ware will be the principle objects in the studio component of the unit. Students will create these objects using the same primitive methods and raw materials as the Olmec. It is this type of recreation and practice that ceramic students are able to get a real sense of how and why techniques used in the construction of pottery has changed so little over time.
The traditions that exist today in San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan can give us a good indication of the formation of the utilitarian wares from the Olmec. Clay analysis tells us the wares were made from clay brought from deposits near the river. Sand from the river banks was then added to break up the texture of the clay — allowing it to be more pliable. Water was slowly reintroduced into the clay body until it became even more pliable. The shape, a conical form would be left to sit for a day — to be reworked (wedged) again before construction could begin. This method allows the potter to obtain an even consistency and ensure all the air pockets are released from this solid body of clay.
The clay was molded by hand, shells from the river bank, and corn cobs which were dipped into water to smooth out the ware. (Coe 127) Typical utilitarian wares would have been (as we know them today to be called) the cantaro — water storage vessel with a small rim, the olla — a wide mouthed storage jar for beans or stews, and the cazuela — a wide, shallow bowl. The Olmec potters used coils to build most of their ware. This process involves rolling out long coils of clay and building one on top of the other until the desired size is obtained.
To create the taller wares described above the following process, which is still used toady by the few reaming women potters of San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan would have probably been used. The construction of these forms begins with the conical form (made from the wedging process explained earlier). The potter pushes a hollow into the end of the solid clay form — creating a cone shape where it is then placed on the small, tapered end. This becomes the bottom of the vessel. The top portion of the walls are then pinched and pulled to create both form and height. The lower half of the vessel remains thicker and more roughly finished at this early stage. The resulting weight at the bottom of the vessel allows the form to remain sturdy as the work is left out for a day or so to partially dry. In the humid climate of the Olmec region, this drying time varies. The second day the lower half, still plastic enough to be stretched with a clam shell, is manipulated to the same thinness as the top. A third day of working the vessel allows the thin vessel time to become leatherhard. At this stage, the potter can cut and scrape the remaining thick base to create a uniform wall thickness.
Prehistoric potters did not apply glaze to create a seal, but polished it to a high sheen using a large round seed. There are very few stones in this region, so the seeds of legume called, tecalate real, were used. (Coe and Diehl 130) This constant polishing or burnishing, brought the silicerus particles to the surface so it became nonporous. After the burnishing process, the ware is still leatherhard, the surface can be cut away. During the Olmec period, an obsidian blade was likely used. (Coe 162)
Much of the utilitarian ware found in a typical Olmec home had no surface design (Benson 1996: 31), the works found that were painted or incised with symbolism and designs (composite Zoomorphic design) are thought to be used in ritual and ceremony. They serve as documents of Olmec religious belief. The composite Zoomorphic design is based on the principle image of a reptile. Characteristics include "serrated brows, and a band- like mouth with dropping corners" (de la Fuente 1996:124). The iconographic message represented by such imagery offers an abstract hint of a hybrid creature. The designs are applied in what is referred to as a wrap-around design. The imagery is only visible when the vessel is 'unfolded' into a two-dimensional surface. The result on a three-dimensional form is an abstraction of line and shape.
When was the concept of a kiln introduced and how did early kilns function?
In conjunction with the unit I developed on the various types of clay bodies, I wrote a unit introducing the various types of kilns that are in production today. This practical knowledge helps students recognize the variety of applications ceramics has had in the past and in fact, how little it has really changed. Generally, I find the majority of my students absorb information when I can apply a variety of teaching methods to the situation. The recreation of an early open-fire pit kiln is a perfect model. The conclusion of the studio portion of this unit will culminate with an outdoor firing of the ceramic ware the student will have made with the traditional techniques and materials of the ancient Olmec. The students will be directly involved in the planning, building (digging) of the pit and will over see the firing process in its entirety.
As we now know, the 'accident' of pottery occurred in an open fire. The earliest kilns date 27,000 B.C. Archaeologists can only determine what was once a kiln site by the recovered debris or "surface indicators". (Rice 151) This debris consists of cracked, warped, or partially vitrified shards. In the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico they a recently excavated pit kiln from the Classical period (Rice 141) It seems likely that open-pit fires existed earlier than this since analysis of the wares and comparison with other cultures of similar origin indicate their use. What these open-pit fire kilns did provide was a semi- permanent structure where control over heat and protection from the wind and rain, a big improvement from the open fire 'accident'. It appears many of these pit fires were located in the homes of the potters and their families.
There are four factors in producing useful wares, with sufficient verification. 1. heat must be generated — a hot, fast burning fuel 2. heat must be transferred to the ware — convection and radiation from hot burning fuel occurs. 3. heat must be contained — maintained by piling the fuel above, below, and in-between the ware. 4. a stable setting for the ware. In Tonala, Mexico it is noted that because of deforestation, the traditional use of wool for fuel expanded into available materials such as dry brushes, cow dung, and sawdust. (Arnold 54) This of course would effect the was as seen through various surface marks.
It would be relatively ineffective to list the specifics involved for firing in an open pit today. As it would have been in 27,000 B.C., there are too many variables. I have provided a number of web sites that give very specific directions for such an activity. Because this is one of the culminating activates for this unit, I will provide a general overview of the actual firing process.
The pit itself may be circular or trench-like. The depth of the pit would vary depending on the amount of pieces you are firing and the shape of the trench. The fuel that can be used in practical operations today include such options as wood, wood ash, leaves, twigs, and kindling. The work is covered with this fuel which acts as a blanket, creating a layer or insulation with the ash. This would create mound over the pieces. The mound is lit and left to smolder for several hours, if not until the next day. The pit should not be disturbed and must be allowed to cool naturally, until the pots can be comfortably handled.
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