Energy, Climate, Environment

Background Information

The Demand for Energy

One of the great challenges facing humanity is how to be responsible stewards of the natural resources entrusted to them. A growing worldwide population and increasing energy demand is exerting greater strain on our environment and on fiscal and natural resources. As individuals and as a society, we must be prepared to deal with the problems that will challenge us in the decades ahead. It is my hope that early education focusing on sustainability and alternative technologies will provide one piece of the solution to this challenge.

Much of our current standards of living were built on the back of increasing demands for energy. At a time in not too distant human history, human energy demands consisted of providing for the basic needs of food and warmth. Residents of modern industrial societies use far more energy than their own bodies can produce-about one hundred times as much in North America and twenty times as much averaged over the globe. ¹ This trend shows no sign of stopping, and the Energy Information Agency (the statistical arm of the U.S. Energy Department) predicts that global energy demand will grow by 50 percent over the next two decades with continued heavy reliance on fossil fuels.

Political and Economic Implications of Fossil Fuel Dependency

Fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) provide 80 percent of the globe's energy needs. Some studies have estimated that it will take just a little over 30 years to consume the remainder of the proven worldwide reserves of oil and natural gas liquids. The relative scarcity of this non-renewable resource will continue to intensify political and economic pressures surrounding this commodity. In the U.S. this issue is compounded by the fact we currently rely on foreign imports to provide 60% of our demand for oil which is over a 33% increase just since 1990. ² (See figure 1.0) As of 2006, OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) member countries held over 76% of the world's known oil reserves. ³ (See figure 1.1) The twelve current member countries of OPEC are Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Venezuela. The long term reliability of dependence on foreign oil is further threatened by the fact that many of the regions that supply most of the U.S. imports have long histories of political instability. As Americans, we cannot simply assume that we play the role of innocent bystander in this political instability, but rather function as an active participant in these world events. American economist and former chairman of the United States Federal Reserve Board, Alan Greenspan, clearly states his opinion of the 2003 invasion of Iraq by the United States. "I am saddened that it is politically inconvenient to acknowledge what everyone knows: the Iraq war is largely about oil," he says. ⁴

In terms of economic impacts, the fluctuations in energy prices have never been greater, reaching record highs in 2008 and then plunging rapidly again in early 2009. The economic impacts of energy prices cannot be examined through the narrow lens of the prices paid at the pump or a consumer's monthly utility bill, but rather as a key part in the overall health of the national economy. Businesses make investment decisions based upon expectations of energy prices and volatility in those prices can cause them to make inappropriate business decisions. Economists agree that inflation tracks movements in world oil prices and that high energy prices can become a drag on the overall economy. ⁵ (See figure 2.0).

Figure 1.0 ⁶

Figure 1.1 ⁷

Figure 2.0 ⁸

Fossil Fuels and Climate, Environment, and Human Health

The fact that we are running out of fossil fuels and the political and economic tensions associated with the shortage is only one side of the issue; the other is the impact that their use is having on the environment, climate, and human health. There are two main types of products generated during the process of burning fossil fuels that have significant environmental impacts: carbon dioxide and pollutants. To examine the two categories it is first vital to understand that the release of stored energy in fossil fuels is due to the combustion of hydrocarbon chains. The production of carbon dioxide is essential to the process of combustion as the fuel's carbon and hydrogen are combined with atmospheric oxygen, which leads to the release of carbon dioxide, water, and thermal (heat) energy. Essentially, there is no way to avoid carbon dioxide production in the burning of fossil fuels because it is an essential by-product of the chemical reaction of combustion of hydrocarbons. Secondly, there are traditional pollutants, which are harmful and inessential by-products that do not arise directly from combustion of the hydrocarbon chain, but rather arise from substances other than carbon and hydrogen that can be found in fossil fuels. Some of the many possible pollutants released include carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, mercury and sulfur, as well as particulate matter (tiny solid particles that do not burn during combustion and are carried along with the stream of gases).

Air Pollutants

Air pollutants have a whole host of harmful environmental and health impacts. Carbon monoxide (CO) is a bi-product resulting from incomplete combustion of fossil fuels and other materials containing carbon, such as wood or charcoal. The main health effect is a result of CO's affinity for hemoglobin, which is the molecule found in red blood cells that carries oxygen throughout the body. CO binds 240 times more readily to hemoglobin than oxygen and once bound is very difficult to displace. ⁹ Therefore, exposure to elevated levels of CO reduces the blood's oxygen carrying abilities; this is no truer than for smokers whose carboxyhemoglobin levels are already an average of 4 times what they are for non-smokers. Because CO emissions are more easily controlled at stationary sources such as power plants, 2/3 of all CO emissions come directly from vehicles. CO emission is reduced by the use of a catalytic converter and CO is one of the main gases that are being checked for when a vehicle is taken in for a vehicle emissions test.

Other pollutants that would be checked for during a vehicle emissions test is the variety of compounds called nitrogen oxides (NO _x), however, the responsibility for production of NO _x is shared more evenly among transportation, industry, and electrical power plants. Not only do nitrogen oxides give air a dirty brown appearance but prolonged exposure can also result in lung damage. In addition, sunlight can cause further chemical reactions within the atmosphere converting nitrogen dioxide (NO ₂ is one of the members of the NO _x group) to ozone (O ₃). At first this may seem like a desirable affect since we know that ozone gas in the stratosphere protects the Earth's surface from harmful ultra-violet rays, but ozone in the lower atmosphere is actually harmful to health. Ozone is a highly reactive chemical and can trigger a whole host of other reactions in the atmosphere leading to still further generation of harmful substances. The end results can lead to eye irritation and respiratory problems in humans, as well as damage to plants and surface materials such as paints and fabrics.

The burning of fossil fuels also releases a variety of heavy metal pollutants including lead and mercury. Mercury is the widest spread heavy metal contaminant and the dominant source of mercury pollution is from coal-burning power plants. Mercury pollution contaminates surface waters of the earth and ends up in the food chain and concentrates as it works its way up to high level predators (bioaccumulation). The fish in the U.S. are so "poisoned" that pregnant women are often advised to not eat certain species of freshwater fish. In the nation's largest hair sampling test of mercury contamination in humans, published by the Environmental Quality Institute at the University of North Carolina-Ashville, it was found that 1/5 of all women of child bearing age have levels of mercury exceeding the EPA recommendation of 1 part per million (in hair). More than 6,600 women from 50 states of all ages participated in the hair tests conducted by Greenpeace and the Sierra Club and in some states the percentage of participants testing above recommended mercury levels was as high as 40%. (See figure 3.0) ¹⁰

Another form of air pollution results from the release of sulfur dioxide (SO ₂) into the atmosphere predominantly from the burning of coal. SO ₂ itself is detrimental to human health. In 1952, when the atmospheric levels of SO ₂ rose sevenfold in London, England it resulted in the deaths of some four thousand people. ¹¹ This is not, however, the end of the story for sulfur pollution. Once in the atmosphere, sulfur dioxide undergoes a series of chemical reactions which eventually generates sulfuric acid (H ₂SO ₄) resulting in what we know as acid rain. Acid rain is responsible for affecting water quality, damaging vegetation, and causing increased corrosion of buildings and many other surface materials.

One other form of air pollution related to the burning of fossil fuels is the release of particulate matter. Particulate pollution is associated with the burning of coal and of heavier liquid fuels like diesel oil. Particulate pollution is quite visible, and if you have ever seen a large semi-truck starting up and billowing large clouds of black smoke then you have seen particulate pollution. Breathing particulate laden air can result in numerous respiratory ailments such as emphysema, chronic bronchitis, and asthma. The technologies for reducing particulate pollution are readily available and widespread in use. Long gone is the dark black smoke that used to constantly loom over industrialized areas of the U.S. during the 19 ^th century. However, it is the smaller, less visible particles that are of the greatest concern. Particles less than 10 microns in size can reach deep into the lungs, are not then easily expelled, and therefore can cause the most damage. A study performed by the Clean Air Task Force in 2004 suggested that as many as 24,000 premature deaths per year in the United States may be the result of particulate air pollution. ¹² Unfortunately, as gruesome as the realities are associated with the above mentioned forms of air pollution, traditional pollution has become the least of the problems associated with fossil fuels.

Figure 3.0 ¹³ Results for States with at Least 100 Participants

Carbon Dioxide and Climate Change

In this decade, consequences associated with tradition pollution have now been overshadowed by the concern about global climate change. Up until the mid-twentieth century, solar variability and volcanic activity accounted for the majority of climate variation. In recent decades, data has shown a rapid warming trend. Only by looking towards anthropogenic caused or produced by humans) agents can climate scientists account for the warming of the late 20th and early 21st century. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2007 Synthesis Report on Climate Change, most of the global warming over the past 50 years is due to anthropogenic "greenhouse gasses". ¹⁴ Carbon dioxide (CO ₂) emissions from the burning of fossil fuels are the main culprit behind global warming. As carbon dioxide collects in the atmosphere, this gas absorbs and emits thermal radiation. With increased amounts of atmospheric carbon dioxide, the result is increased heat trapped within the earth's atmosphere; leading to a "greenhouse" like effect. Unfortunately, this particular "greenhouse gas" has an atmospheric lifespan of between 50-200 years, meaning that it will stay in Earth's atmosphere for at least 50 years. Consequently, carbon dioxide emitted today could continue to contribute to global warming for up to two centuries to come. This problem is exacerbated by the fact that carbon dioxide output is not stagnant, but rather growing at an alarming rate. The Energy Information Administration claims that without mandatory actions to address global warming, the amount of CO ₂ flowing into the atmosphere each year from energy use will be 51 percent greater in 2030 than it was in 2005. ¹⁵

The global impacts of this warming are numerous and widespread. Continued melting of polar snow and ice pack and thermal expansion of the oceans will contribute to rising global sea level. Currently, half of the human population lives in coastal areas-some in areas that are already below sea level. The projected sea level rise will flood a great deal of developed land directly while submitting many millions of other people to yearly flooding. A side effect of this rise in sea level is salt water intrusion into freshwater resources, making that commodity increasingly scarce. Large-scale ocean circulation changes are also likely with increased global warming. Ocean currents play a major role in determining local climate, and ironically global warming could bring about deep freezes in once temperate locals. Because every species of organism has a natural range of climactic conditions they can tolerate, there is an expected change in geographic range of species associated with global warming. As the Earth warms, species are expected to shift towards the poles and higher elevations. Although a simple "shift" seems innocuous at first, the reality is that it will lead to a more compressed species-area relationship thereby contributing to an eventual loss of biodiversity as the area can no longer support the increased number and variety of organisms inhabiting it. Increased frequency and severity of extreme weather events are almost certain in the wake of a rise in global temperature. Ocean acidification is another consequence of increased CO ₂ in the atmosphere. Under such acidic conditions, certain types of plankton that form the base of marine food chains may have difficulty surviving. These reflect only some of the global climate changes that mankind will be faced with.

Projections of how fast global warming will occur and how severe the resulting consequences, are largely dependent on assumptions about human behavior. Scientists have projected a wide range of possible models based on changes in human energy consumption, reduced reliance on fossil fuels, as well as technologies to mitigate the effects of atmospheric CO ₂ such as carbon offsets and carbon sequestration. One thing is certain: with current practices and behaviors surrounding energy usage, global greenhouse gas emissions will continue to grow over the next few decades; driving global warming. The fallout of global warming will not be equally distributed, however, and some of the world's regions with the smallest carbon footprint will get the brunt of the blow. The IPCC 2007 Synthesis Report on Climate Change cites the Arctic, Africa, small islands and Asian and African megadeltas as being some of the world's most vulnerable regions. ¹⁶ This compounds the dilemma by raising serious ethical issues about one group of people "paying the bill" environmentally for another group's energy consumption.