The History
The Creole (black influence/French heritage) people came to the area, intermarried with the Native Americans and began a blended culture that has flourished for hundreds of years. The area also became a slave port, with Creole people owning slaves. Sunday afternoons were a time when the slaves were allowed to socialize with the Haitians and Creoles (the free people of color) in Congo Square, todays' Louis Armstrong Park. They shared rhythms and beats. It should be noted that the city was built by the Creole people before slaves. It was a city built by free men of color. New Orleans had more free men of color than the rest of America before the Civil War. The segregation of races began after reconstruction.
Congo Square, currently called Louis Armstrong Park, is where African slaves were first brought for sale in New Orleans. Law mandated (Black Code of 1685) that slaves could not gather, except for religious days. The forced Catholic religion resulted in the mixing of spiritual beliefs that resulted in secretive ceremonies. Free men of color (mostly Haitians) and slaves gathered each Sunday at Congo Square where they were allowed to interact. They played their homeland drum rhythms. European brass music could be heard in the distance. Combined with the drum rhythms-American Jazz was born. The music and chanting became a way to communicate.
For over 150 years in New Orleans the African American people have been using music, food and craft to come together and survive. New Orleans was Indian territory. Slaves fled through the area and were helped by the Native Americans. They intermarried, learned each others customs and cultures while growing to appreciate one another. Spanish, French and Polynesian peoples inhabited the area. Eventually Europeans drove some of the native peoples into the swamp lands which resulted in rich folk lore, cuisine, and a new interruption of Catholicism/Christianity making Voodoo a powerful belief. Cultures were woven together, bead by bead, piece by piece, like a quilt of humanity
The French brought Mardi Gras to America in 1699; it had been celebrated in Paris since the Middle Ages. French explorer Pierre Le Moyne d'lberville set up camp 60 miles south of what is today New Orleans and named the spot Point du Mardi Gras. During the 1700s masked balls were popular before Lent. Spanish rule stopped that and banned mask wearing. In 1827 masking was legalized again. Mardi Gras masking was thought of negatively in the 1840's-50's due to the street violence that arose while people were masked. A group of white men formed an organization to oversee parade activities, The Comus organization resulted and coined the term "krewe." They started the custom of a secret carnival society, themed parades, beauty, floats and mythological characters that tradition has continued through today. The white Mardi Gras celebrations and parades that are widely publicized are not the focus of this paper. When ordered to allow blacks to participate (1992), many krewes stopped their activities and no longer participated. Those main street parades are a huge tourist draw to the city and today involve all people. The history and activities of Comus are well documented, and I encourage interested people to further explore this organization.
In contrast, gangs, tribes or groups of Indians (African American men) make costumes (or suits) to share their stories and traditions. The making can take up to a year, the sharing occurs during the ten day celebration of Mardi Gras. It is not well publicized. Those "in the know" get up early and look for the Indians. It is not Main Street staged. Suits may also be seen during the annual Jazz and Heritage festival on a designated stage and once or twice more during the year during specific celebrations. Some hire out for parties, but I will not address that aspect in detail. Their beautiful suits change from year to year. There is a science to beading, the various sizes, what works best in which areas, what will fit. It is painting with beads.
The design is conceived and the beading starts at the center of the panel. They are works of art. Materials are also recycled by disassembling the suit. Damien Roberts (photographer, builder and New Orleans friend) shared the story of visiting a Mardi Gras Indian while he was working on his suit. The house was a small cottage, not very well maintained, but clean. Inside there was a table, two chairs and a bed. That was it. That and thousands of feathers, beads and sewing supplies. The beauty and value of the supplies was a stark contrast to the living conditions. Tribes will hold fish fries and raise money in a number of ways. Recent recognition of the art has resulted in some available grant monies and display of suits after their use. Children grow up learning that supplies for suits are a priority in their households. Many do without for the sake of supplies. The local power company is known for cutting some slack for some Chiefs as Carnival gets near, bills come second to beads, feathers, sequins and jewels! The shift has gone from guns and revenge to the competition of patience, sequins and hems. It is no accident that competitive stitchery, beadwork and opulent adornment have edged out violence in the confrontations between rival gangs." (Cities... p.206-) Some of the Mardi Gras Indians have begun filing for copyright protection for their suits, worth thousands of dollars in glass beads, rhinestones, feathers and velvet and hundreds of hours of sewing. What may be most tricky of all is pushing the Indians themselves to start thinking about the legal and financial dimensions of something they have always done out of tradition. In American copyright law, clothing designs usually cannot be protected because they are more functional than aesthetic.
Indian culture was never, ever meant to make any money. The issue is exploitation and being taken for granted. "The message they share has roots as deep as memory, but it must reinvent itself a new every year in hosanna of feathers, beadwork, gesture and song. In Japan such messages would be revered as Living National Treasures. In New Orleans, they are still harassed by police for parading without permits." 7
Copyright laws are being perused by some tribes to keep outsiders from profiting from their hard work. Indians welcome personal photos being taken but do not want books and videos used for profit being able to "sell" their images. The suits are being categorized as sculptures because clothing cannot be copyrighted. Suits worn are not the primary clothing but cover clothing and extend in all directions beyond normal clothing. They are dimensional. Suits use to be burned each year, today that is rare. Some are donated to museums, sold to private collectors or used for private ceremonies and parties. Native American are noted for their beautiful and elaborate bead work. The Northwest Museum of Arts and Culture in Washington has great examples of beaded bags that tell stories, as do the breast plates of the MGI suits.
Contour beading requires first sewing the design onto a surface then the background beads are filled in creating a swirling effect that gives dimension. Sometimes the pictures are sketches onto the surface then the beads applied. A heavy canvas must be used to stand up to the weight of the beads. A variety of techniques are used to achieve the designs. Single beads, strands of multiple beads, then secured, the type and color of the beads, the thickness of the thread all attribute to the skill needed to accomplish these magnificent design panels. Designs are applied within a certain area to a large canvas. They must be backed up with a stabilizing fabric so the canvas does not fold. Once completed the extra canvas surface is either trimmed or folded back for additional stability. Plumes and boas are added along with jewels and sequins embellishments. The panels can cover the front breast plate area, the back, legs and arms. Heavy duty threads and needles are needed to complete this work. Fingers are pricked raw. The work is hard. Most chiefs do the work by themselves, others are helped by apprentice youth or other tribe members. Headpieces also display beaded storied images and elaborate plumes of vibrant meaningful color. Rhinestones and other embellishments may be applied with prong devices. People need help getting into their suits and the techniques of dressing and balancing to wear the suit requires precision and expert engineering.
This group, so down trodden and continually harassed by police, hold the key to a rich and intriguing cultural heritage of New Orleans. "Kneeling before graves, he asks the spirits of the past to enter his body so that he can become their living vessel, joining his soul with theirs as he takes to the streets. Later, at sunrise, he emerges in full costume, calling out and waking up the Treme neighborhood with his group ... which has followed the Carnival tradition for decades." 8 "Poverty and discrimination are social pressures that sociologists and historians will cite as metaphorical lumps of coal that produced diamonds like social aid and pleasure clubs and Mardi Gras Indian tribes. At the same time, those conditions produced social instability and violent crime. Social Clubs were established to lend support.Traces of those elements can be found even in the cultural jewels." 9
The Mardi Gras parades started when a Russian Prince visited New Orleans and the people wanted to impress him, so they had a parade and threw trinkets to the crowd to create excitement. Mardi Gras begins two weeks before lent. There are ten days of parades, all of different themes chosen by the krewes. The events end with Carnival (good bye to flesh) Day, it's the big blow out before lent begins. Rex is the King of the Carnival- a Cumos creation. The Blacks answered back with the creation of the Zulu's. That white designation with black faces and grass skirts making fun of the 1920 s minstrel black faces. Most gangs are now known as Tribes, though a few still hold onto the gang designation.It is widely seen as an outlet for the oppressed and impoverished. A way to honor the past and to let off steam.Such an unusual celebration of community, creative imagination and international carnivalesque-all within the revolutionary "devil may care", "in your face", "anything can happen" context of the New Orleans Mardi Gras-must have been an inspiring occasion for the black leaders, and a nightmarish vision for the white supremacists." (p.20 Mardi Gras, Gumbo and Zydeco)
In 1885, along with the Cotton Expedition, the Buffalo Bill Wild Wild West show came to New Orleans. The Wild West show stayed through the winter, long after the Expedition left. There are a few version of how the Mardi Gras Indians came to be. One belief is that they were inspired by the Wild West Show. This excerpt from the local paper reports on its impact; "Buffalo Bills' wild West Show caused great excitement for amusement seekers whenever it performed it representation of 'Life Among the Red Man and Road Agents on the Plains and Prairies" In 1884-85, the show stayed in New Orleans through the winter. Cody (Buffalo Bill) found Anne Oakley when her husband brought her in to audition. Chief Gall, the great Sioux war chief was the special guest of the Pawnee and Sioux Indians who appeared in the show. These ceremonies were noteworthy since the Sioux and Pawnee Indians were natural enemies. The Sioux viewed the Pawnee as mercenaries for services as scouts for the U.S. Army. Gall or Poza was a war chief of the Hun-papa Sioux. He was the adapted younger brother of Chief Sitting Bull. Gall had been responsible for turning back Major Marcus Reno's surprise attack on the Indian village of the Battle of Little Big Horn 1876. 1 0
More widely accepted is the belief that Mardi Gras Indian culture is an expression of Black resistance to white supremacist environment. The Indian represented the warrior spirit that resisted European domination. The Maroon Spirit is the mixing of Indian and Black living in the swamps and forests too difficult to colonize. Local tribes in the area offered refuge to runaway slaves forming bonds of friendship and marriage. Parading in Mardi Gras means to enter the spirit world of possession. Dancing with a spirit is not just dancing but being embodied by a spirit Indian suits vary in style whether from uptown or downtown. Downtown Indians have a more abstract sculptural style of dress.Uptown suits are more reflective of the Native American Indian look. The differences are less obvious today than in the past."But, it's complicated. The history of Mardi Gras come out of a history of shared oppression and marginality between the Black and Native residents, or some stories point to a desire to honor Native communities who took in escaped slaves." 11 Mardi Gras costumes vary greatly for the whites and blacks. To this day the whites (krewes) costumes reflect the costumes of the 1800s royals. The Indians, African Americans, Native Americans, Haitian, Creole gangs, now known as Tribes (though a few gangs still go by that title) began their tradition of costumes using turkey and chicken feathers to honor the Native Americans who welcomed them and shared their culture and traditions. To honor the American Plains Indians, feathers a common adornment in Nigeria and beadwork reflective of the Native American craft, are most prominently used. This art form and process has been documents for over one hundred years. Before then very little documentation of African American activity can be readily found.
The Indians of New Orleans, the tribes that mask,(their are between 30-40 tribes) are a strong culture born from extreme oppression of the Black resistance to a white supremacy. Masking is the ultimate way to self expression. It is traditional to wear on Mardi Gras Day. Wear one instead of a costume, or with a costume. For one day you can be anonymous. Many Hollywood celebrities come to New Orleans and mask because for one day they can be truly free. Masks can express your inner secretive personality or your or your later ego. That kind of freedom is why people come to Mardi Gras. Masks (and costumes) are also used at the parades and in the French Quarter to get attention from the float riders and the balcony revelers, so they will throw more stuff if they like your costume. Couples often color coordinate or deliberately contrast. Groups of friends can all wear the same mask. Men dress as women and women dress as men.
New Orleans and Mardi Gras are synonymous with a good time, partying, dancing and music in the streets. It's a colorful celebration unlike any other. Even after Hurricane Katrina destroyed much of the city, the parade resumed without a delay.Hurricane Katrina displaced so many people, especially in the poor neighborhoods that Carnival is a time for people to go home for a visit. Locals tribes and gangs worry that much of the tradition and understanding will be lost. Barnes says, "They come home but its not the same as being home. For the young ones coming up, they're not going to have the same viewpoint of it because they just come in for a day visit or a weekend visit. It's a visit for them." 12 After the storm many tribe members were scattered all over the country, for their homes were in the hardest hit areas. However they have rallied. Those still local didn't miss a beat although most lost all of their supplies and many lost suits from previous years, they made their suits and masked for Mardi Gras for the first celebration after the storm. They continue to march from their spiritual home, 7th Ward those the area is still and aftermath of devastation and walk the path to honor the Chief of Chiefs, Tootie Montana. Treme is their center and they gather under the Clairborne Street bridge, a bridge built over their territory.
Parades became a venue for local gangs to settle scores and the violence was deadly. The most famous Big Chief was Tootie Montana. In the late 1960s and early 1970s he turned parades from violence into a competition of craft and beauty. Simple chicken and turkey feathers were replaced by elegant ostrich feathers. Crowns, breast plates, entire suits were (and continue to be) hand made works of art, beaded and feathered to follow themes and tell stories. People replaced the violence with admiration, to protect the beauty of their costumes.
It became "strut your stuff," rather than kill each another."Contemporary Big Chief's point out that the object of the confrontations now is to show excellence in costume and performance style, to make the enemy Chief "Bow" by superior displays." 13 Craftsmanship and beauty continue to be the most significant element of the parades along with pride and status for individuals and Tribes. "For the urban underclassmen in the United States at the end of the twentieth century, violence is one of the few forms of excess expenditure available in leu of money. People spend their own and other's blood. For this kind of investment, however, Mardi Gras Indian suits offer themselves a s a substitute. In the year of exhaustive labor that it takes them to make them, their designers 'sweat blood'." 14 It is noted that, "The Mardi Gras Indians exemplify the creolization at the heart of the Pan-Carribean and North American influences converging to create a fresh aesthetic is similar to what occurred in the West Indies. Although variations appear in Toronto, Brooklyn, London, Trinidad, St. Kitts-Nevis, Brazil, Cuba, Jamaica, Bermuda and the Bahamas, nowhere else is it accompanied by quite the same musical refrains, aesthetic form, and artistic technique that characterized New Orleans' Black Indians". 15 Music and dance have set the Mardi Gras Indians apart from any other suitings in the world.
Tootie Montana was the only Chief of Chiefs of New Orleans Mardi Gras Indians, Tootie received the National Endowment for the Arts Lifetime Honors in 1987. He was the first Mardi Gras Indian to become a National Heritage Fellow. The NEA site notes" his individual artistry is recognized by all. He is a gifted costume designer, a brilliant dancer and song leader, and an eloquent artist and director of his group. Folk Art is defined as "self taught, non-institution sponsored, seemingly craft centered artisans". 16 He traces his tradition back to 1880, when his great uncle, Chief Becate founded the Yellow Pocahontas Tribe. The fantasy-filled interplay between the African-American cultural studies and American Indian motifs. The "Spyboy" runs ahead of the Chief to scout for other tribes and signals back to the "Flagboy who carries the tribes banner and relays signals to the Chief. Earlier times, tribes were known as gangs, there use to be physical trouble, often bloodshed. Damien Roberts has attended Mardi Gras Indian parades for more than thirty years and recalls being behind a group of people on three separate occasions when someone was shot. Montana is credited as being the one who changed the direction of the parading Indians for the better. He is known as "The Prettiest-ever! With his guidance, the gangs became more tribe oriented, working together for the good of the reputation of the group to create the most beautiful suit at the parade. The focus became beauty rather than settling a score.
March 19, 2005, a celebration of Mardi Gras Indians celebrating was broken up by the New Orleans police department. This St.Joseph's Night celebration has gone on for at least a century. The Indians either had to take off their costumes or face arrest. Parades require a permit and even though this is thought of as a tradition, in 2005 the police force felt it necessary to break up the gathering. There has been tension for many years between the New Orleans police force and the Indians. Perhaps years of violence amongst the gangs or years of misunderstanding by the police force and others in New Orleans, whatever the reason not everyone values their contribution to the area. Tootie Montana was 82 years old. Along with a group of Indians, he attended a special City Council meeting to address police harassment. He approached the podium and spoke, "I want this to stop". With that said, he had a massive heart attack and died. It was a powerful and symbolic message from the man who was "The Prettiest", who changed the direction of a potentially violent tradition to one of craftsmanship, admiration, healthy competition and living heritage.
In 2005 Hurricane Katrina just missed New Orleans. Rains and winds pounded the city. Although a mandatory evacuation was ordered, many residents stayed in their homes or gathered at the sanctioned Super Dome. The aftermath of the hurricane caused the known faulty levee system to fail. The city is literally below sea level in a bowl like configuration and has always been at great risk. The flooding was unprecedented. Thousands of people were stranded and killed, billions of dollars in damage occurred. The devastation effected the poorer, minority sections of the city. People who could literally not afford to leave. Although the faulty levee system was a known factor, the city never devised an evacuation plan for its citizens. As an aside, animal shelters in the area had a plan and were able to successfully evacuate and maintain those animals. The response of the federal government, or lack of response, as people waited dying in the Dome and on their roof tops still resonates anger throughout the country. As the situation continues to be evaluated, many people remain displaced and in temporary shelters 6 years later. It is truly a travesty in the chronicles of our countries history.
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