Part B – Lifeskills and the Presidencies of Washington, Adams and Jefferson
Integrated Thematic Instruction (ITI) was a multidisciplinary approach to teaching content that Tulsa Public Schools started implementing in 2001. With its focus on building efficient and responsible citizens for the world, and applying the results of brain research to instruction, it listed, as a basis for classroom management policies, five community guidelines and eighteen qualities, the Lifeskills, that defined teachers' and students' personal best: caring, common sense, cooperation, courage, curiosity, effort, flexibility, friendship, initiative, integrity, organization, patience, perseverance, pride, problem solving, resourcefulness, responsibility and sense of humor. 10 For the second part of this unit, I want students to relate the Lifeskills of cooperation, flexibility, initiative, organization, problem solving and responsibility to the presidencies of George Washington, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson as they study their biographies and a key event in each presidency.
The first 3 presidencies: leadership & Lifeskills
The American president is the executive leader of the nation, although the presidency itself, the executive power, is not designed to be the center of responsibility in the government: that is the legislative power's job. In view of the separation of powers, one of the main issues a president as a leader has faced is thus how to handle conflict. Burns contends that there have been certain expectations attached to this job and maybe more clearly delimited in the origins of the presidency: the president was expected to be judicious, high-minded, removed from turbulence of party discord: to be above the political conflict that is embedded in the constitutional structure of the presidency. 11
Although these expectations are still somewhat present today, a current president's political power is mostly correlated with the support of the people: he needs not only a sense of how to awaken and draw on the needs of his followers, but also have the capacity to mobilize the resources to meet those needs, thus retaining the people's support and continuing in power (Lifeskills of organization, problem solving, cooperation and initiative.) In general, like a successful leader, presidents need self-confidence and practicality, political skill, ability to command sub-leaders, personal relationship with people and personal authority, and responsibility in the enhancement of the executive functions (Lifeskills of flexibility and responsibility.)
Even in the Constitution in its Article 2, section 2, it can be argued that Lifeskills are present. The Article elaborates on the powers of the president but each responsibility is tied in to cooperation with Congress and the Supreme Court. At the same time, the president's organization can help him be successful in communication and problem solving; the president will also need initiative to bring his agenda forth and the flexibility to adapt, change, compromise or even start over when dealing with Congress; all of this is underlined by the responsibility he owes to his post and the people who have elected him, altogether with his promise to uphold the articles of the Constitution.
Responsibility also plays a broader role: the president has civilian power over the military and his Cabinet, as well as the power to pardon and to appoint the right leaders for his government. Without a strong sense of duty and responsibility, a president with such powers can easily turn into a dictator or a tyrant. In the same Article 2, section 3 he is entrusted with taking care that the laws of the country are faithfully executed. And, just like in life when we do not live up to what is expected, the president can be disqualified from his post, as stated in section 4.
I find Lifeskills are inherent to a leader's personality and his duties: cooperation, flexibility, initiative, organization, problem solving and responsibility. Greenstein, who studied leadership style from Franklin Delano Roosevelt to Barack Obama, lists six traits that he finds in the American president: effectiveness as public communicator (knows how to articulate what he needs to say), organizational capacity (not only for himself and his duties but for his cabinet and the people and institutions around him), political skill (the ability to use his powers energetically while able to preserve people's support), vision (consistent in his ideas with a skill to inspire others), and strategic (clear intentions with his tactics) and emotional intelligence (able to keep centered, far from emotional chaos). 12
Barber's study revisits some of these elements. He examines five concepts that influence a president's performance: character, world view, style, power situation, and climate of expectations. Character is related to self-esteem, world view with the president's beliefs and conceptions; style with how the president goes about doing what his office requires him to do; power situation gives relevance to a president adapting to the system in which he will be interacting just like the system is trying to adapt to him; and the climate of expectations is related to the needs of the voters and the sense of reassurance and progress the president is able to convey. 13
These elements allow Barber to create main configurations, using psychological research, through which he can study and typify the presidential experience; he warns that these are tendencies and that no individual can truly fit a category: active-positive type presidents are characterized by high self-esteem, flexibility, defined personal goals, and achievement of results; the active-negative type is ambitious, perfectionist, his self-image is vague; gets and keep power, even if there is struggle; in the passive-positive category we find the leader who is compliant, cooperative, agreeable, has low self-esteem and is after affections; finally, the passive-negative type is of low self-esteem but capable of dutiful service and civic virtue.
Through that categorization he concludes that Washington is closer to the passive-negative type: he established the legitimacy of the American government; was always dignified and judicious; his temperament carried an air of reserve and dedication, and tried persistently to keep stability. Adams, an active-negative type, acted dutiful although he was impatient, irascible, and seemed to have craved a need to dominate; finally, Jefferson, of an active-positive nature was agreeable, humorous, and clear and; he also used reason and an open vision to lead his government and the nation.
However, Edwards contends that all of these qualities can be present but external circumstances play a key role in determining the success or failure of a president. After analyzing the time in office of several contemporary presidents, he comes to the conclusion that a skilled leader has to also be a facilitator, whom he defines as "leaders who depend on their environments for providing opportunities that they can exploit to accomplish their objectives… a successful president requires the commitment, resolution, perseverance, resiliency and strength to take full advantage of opportunities that arise." 14
During the first twenty years of the American presidency Washington, Adams and Jefferson had to work hard at legitimizing democracy, the new experiment on governance. Their personalities and role as leaders certainly contributed to the challenges and changes the presidency went through but also their intrinsic (or lack of) Lifeskills (cooperation, flexibility, initiative, organization, problem solving and responsibility) played a role in their failures or successes. Moreover, the always looming possibility of destabilizing the democratic form of government through autocratic leadership seems to have been kept at bay by these presidents' personalities and their strong commitment to the ideals of the Union. At the same time, following Edwards, perhaps the successes were more influenced by the social-economical and world landscape of the times than their glorified or condemned images.
George Washington, 1794: The Whiskey Rebellion
It is commonly argued that the first president of the United States, George Washington developed his leadership skills before and during the Revolutionary Era. Previously to earning his title as "The Father of His Country", Washington was determined to secure a commission with the British army. With a clear vision to achieving this goal, he enlisted in the Virginia militia and, as a Major, went to the frontier (in those days, the Ohio River area) to assess possible conflicts between the British and the French settlers. Earning some fame with the publication of The Journal of Major George Washington, he later returned to the area to, this time, fight in the French and Indian War as a Lieutenant Colonel. Even though his participation included some failures, he acquired military experience that proved invaluable for his career.
To his disappointment, and in spite of having developed war skills and earning the respect of his men, he was not given the desired commission with the British Military (he was a colonial, after all) 15 and thus resigned the militia to start his life as a Virginia plantation owner. But his military status had already been established and by the time the colonies began armed hostilities towards the British, Washington was chosen as chief of the fragmented and untrained Continental Army. It is during the Revolutionary War that Washington gains the ultimate admiration that will accompany him for life but, in general, the victories were few, the mutinies many, and a big part of his job consisted in keeping the men together as he thought their commitment to fight would eventually weaken the British campaign. Washington's determination, persistence and organization served him well, although the revolutionary effort could not have succeeded without French help. 16
Washington's service to the nation barely seemed to have ended after the war. Elected president of the Constitutional Convention of 1787, he is a witness to the development of the Constitution and later regarded as "indispensable to the American people's political existence." 17 Given such a status, it follows that the office of the Executive is created around him and he then becomes the first president of the new democratic nation in 1789.
During his presidency, Washington added the Inaugural Address to the Executive's duties; introduced a ceremonial aspect to the office that had not been anticipated; and set several precedents: he created a Cabinet of advisors, initiated the negotiation of treaties before asking Congress for approval, remained neutral in regards to foreign wars, and declined to be president after two terms in office. He was regarded at the time as "systematic, orderly, energetic, solicitous of the opinion of others but decisive, intent upon general goals and the consistency of particular actions with them." 18
Another precedent, which is sometimes argued as falling into the excessive use of presidential powers debate, was Washington's refusal to submit documents to the House in regards to the Jay Treaty. 19 These negotiations were endorsed by Washington's policy of ensuring the United States' neutrality in international conflicts. Washington claimed that secrecy was necessary in diplomatic negotiations and therefore he had an "executive privilege" to protect the documents. However, he acknowledged that the Senate did have a role in the ratification of treaties (as stated in the Constitution), and submitted the documents to the Senate. The House proceeded to approve the treaty. Nevertheless, the "executive privilege" Washington claimed was something his cabinet created and has been used by several presidents after him.
One of the events in which Washington proved his leadership was the Whiskey Rebellion. Although Congress had authorized a tax on spirits, some strong opposition started emerging in Western Pennsylvania. The nation was in desperate need of collecting these funds as the Treasury was trying to pay the debt that had accumulated during the Revolutionary period. Discontent and some violent episodes prompted the President, as Commander in chief, to lead an expedition to the territory. The strength in Washington's character in carrying, literally, his duties as expressed in the Constitution, combined with negotiations, put an end to the revolt.
Washington set the example of not accepting a third term in office –he was tired, longing for his Mount Vernon home and being far from the intrigues that had developed during his presidency, especially between the people he supported, the Federalists, and an anti-group who eventually would become the Republican party. However, he couldn't escape for too long. In 1799, his former vice-president, now President John Adams, anticipating possible military conflicts, appointed him lieutenant general and commander of the American army; he accepted on the condition he wouldn't assume active command unless it became indispensable; to everybody's relief his duties were minimal 20
By the end of his presidency in 1797, Washington was regarded as having led the office with strong convictions regarding organization, discipline and the value of enduring institutions. His character, traits and principles contributed to a strong foundation of the American government. Tyranny was something he opposed often and a need for dictatorial authority was far from what he envisioned doing before or after his presidency.
John Adams, 1798: The Alien and Sedition Acts
John Adams, vice-president to George Washington during both terms in office, was a graduate from Harvard University with law degrees and studies in political philosophy. He was one of the founders who originally wrote essays and resolutions criticizing the British policies regarding taxes and the regulation of trade. However, he was always a fair observer and lawyer: during the Boston Massacre he defended the British soldiers accused of starting the revolt and secured their freedom. Much later, integral to his ideas, he would be one of the first leaders to insist on a system of checks and balances while exercising the will of the people in regards to national government.
Adams is credited with helping get financial help for the colonies' independence when he traveled to the Netherlands during the Revolutionary War. He also returned to Europe later to negotiate the peace treaty that set the colonies free from British rule. After this, his next service to the new country was as the first American ambassador to Great Britain.
Although not as popular and revered as Washington (he had won the presidency by three votes), Adams from the very beginning reached out to Thomas Jefferson, his vice-president, and James Madison, a member of his cabinet, to help him repair the almost broken relationship with France, their former ally. Jefferson and Madison had encouraged the United States government to side with France in their war against Europe, particularly Great Britain. However, President Washington had declared neutrality which meant the Americans would not support either country. By the time Adams became president, the men in government were getting more divided in their preferences and both, Jefferson and Madison, rejected President Adams' request and threatened to resign his cabinet. Adams, trying to keep the peace and these powerful men close to him, backed away. 21
Trying to organize the government and country, in case of attack by either France or Great Britain, President Adams petitioned Congress to increase the navy and the army's budget. He, strategically, asked retired George Washington to become commander of the army but fortunately, no hostilities ever reached the United States –although they did occur on the high seas.
As Adams started growing very suspicious of the loyalty, or lack of it, from the men in Congress and in his cabinet, a split among the Federalists widened. The president was
"regarded as vain, opinionated, unpredictable, and stubborn to follow Federalists' directions." 22 The climate in the country turned into one of mistrust and suspicion. Congress decided to pass the Alien and Sedition Acts as "instruments of self-preservation for a republic threatened by a foreign power and its domestic adherents" 23; another goal was preventing the Republicans of gaining more supporters and, in general, controlling dissidents and critics of the government. However, these acts just contributed to bigger divisions in governments and eventually, the creation of political parties.
The four laws that made up the Alien and Sedition Acts changed from five to fourteen years the term for a foreigner to become citizen (Naturalization Act); gave the president the power to deport any resident alien who was believed to be dangerous (Alien Friends Act) or, in case of war with a country whose citizens lived in the United States, detain, deport or confine them ( the Alien Enemy Act, still in effect); and last, the Sedition Act allowed the government to fine and imprison critics of the government's policies or officers. These laws, signed, although not proposed by Adams, were highly criticized as unconstitutional and an overreach of the President's powers stated in the Constitution. Adams could have vetoed the Acts but instead he approved them and brought his attention back to his peace efforts in foreign policy.
This time, without any consultation with his cabinet or Congress, Adams sent a peace envoy to France and an agreement was reached: France had consented to peace but not to compensation for the ships it had damaged or confiscated. It had not been a perfect agreement but peace had been reached.
Many scholars today agree that President Adams's achievements and legacy are to be found in his deep commitment to preserve the young republic, its peace, its values. 24 The abuses that the Alien and Sedition Acts brought about were minimal and, once again, the President's principles and endorsement of the ideals that had created the Union were more important than the Federalists and Anti-Federalists' disputes and disagreements. Acting as an "independent executive" President Adams was able to endure the deep disagreements in his government which, for a while, were thought to break apart the young nation. 25 In his beloved wife, Abigail Adams, he found an equal in intellect and companionship who, in spite of all the criticism, always defended her dearly loved partner.
Thomas Jefferson, 1803: The Louisiana Purchase
When Thomas Jefferson becomes the third president of the United States, he has already been in office for twelve years: first as secretary of state with Washington; later as vice-president to Adams. During those years he has gradually separated from the Federalists and their idea of a more central government which, according to his beliefs, minimized the power of the states.
Jefferson was a figure of the Enlightenment –a firm believer in the people's innate rights to liberty and equality. At this time, the Federalists viewed men as weak, unreliable and in need of much guidance –therefore, a strong government was indispensable. Jefferson's ideas seemed to be at the other extreme; he would argue that man was reasonable, self-improving and autonomous which made him able to take care of himself and his family "if only intrusive institutions were removed." 26
Still, like Adams, Thomas Jefferson, was a knowledgeable intellectual; he was also a practicing lawyer and could express himself succinctly and effortlessly, especially in paper (thanks to him we have the extensively quoted Declaration of Independence.) Differently from Adams, though, Jefferson developed social skills that helped him tremendously in diplomacy and later in politics; and, just like Adams, he was one of the first American ambassadors to Europe, in his case, France. These two men would actually be united in the political history of the United States until the fourth of July of 1826 when both, just minutes after the other, died.
The election of 1800 marked the first time in America history that a different political party, the Republicans, came to power and the transition was peaceful. Jefferson's Revolution of the 1800 set him as an agent of change, turning around Adams' policies which, he believed, were characterized by too much interference by the federal government: he reduced military expenditure and taxes; balanced the budget and allowed, almost all, the Alien and Sedition Acts to expire. Additionally, since Congress was also Republican, most of the legislation that passed during his presidency originated in Jefferson or his cabinet; this added the job of Chief Legislator to the duties of the executive in addition to an already new title, Party Leader, which Jefferson had inadvertently created. 27
Early on, Adams had described Jefferson as "prompt, frank, explicit and decisive in committees and conversations." 28 His decisiveness and cautious diplomacy – interwoven by his beliefs and ideology- is what helped him seize an opportunity to double the size of the United States. Purchasing the territory of Louisiana from the French was a timely and risky enterprise as Jefferson felt it was not a power granted to him by the Constitution. But, his dream of "an expanding army of peaceful settlers carrying American institutions to the Pacific" 29 proved more important. And strategically, reducing the number of borders with Spain, France and Great Britain, would make everyone safer in the western areas of the nation.
Originally, Jefferson had wanted to buy the port of New Orleans to strengthen the nation's navigational and commercial capacities. The French self-declared Emperor, Napoleon Bonaparte, had ceased on his idea of rebuilding the French empire in America and, in desperate need for money to continue his war against Great Britain, saw an opportunity in Jefferson's offer. At the same time, Jefferson, concerned about the unconstitutionality of his decision, drafted an amendment. However, this amendment would require debate in Congress and eventual ratification by the states, and there was fear Napoleon could change his mind; therefore, without delay, the purchase was approved. When US Army Captain Meriwether Lewis and his partner, William Clark, commissioned by Jefferson, surveyed and wrote about the newly purchased land, "their report captured the public imagination and sparked not only interest in new settlements but dreams of a continental United States." 30 In spite of all the good it could bring to the nation, some people wanted to minimize this as one of Jefferson's achievement; for his part, Jefferson never boasted about it. However, the issue about the over extension of his authority was a valid argument and, in addition to his new roles as legislator and party leader, expanded the President's responsibilities and power.
From the two terms in presidency, Jefferson's first was more successful; during the second there were more tribulations and difficulties. However, his place in history had already been achieved and his influence continued until the Declaration of Independence was fifty years old. Even after his death "generations of Americans turned to him for inspiration and guidance in the successive crises of the nation's affairs." 31
The Constitution, Lifeskills and Presidents
The United States has had a good political life. In spite of the permanent, very much valid, concerns in regards to the continual extension of the Presidents' powers, the Constitution of 1787 has been, and still is, the background for the government's policies and decisions. From the very beginning, the country's leaders were persistent in distancing America's new political organization from the old models of the monarchy. The creation of the three branches of government was believed to be an efficient structure to allow the people's chosen leaders to rule without a sharp imbalance between what the country and its people needed and expected. With this model, the perspective of tyrannical rule was almost eradicated as the Chief Executive, the Congress and the Supreme Court had individual responsibilities within their branches and with one another, that is, keeping in check each other's powers. It actually can be concluded that, after 224 years, with this document still in place and no authoritarian ruler, this democratic experiment has been quite a success.
Has the Constitution and the configuration of government been the only warrant of this accomplishment? Viewing the presidencies of Washington, Adams and Jefferson we can see that the inherent notion of conflict, embedded in the creation of the three branches of government, has allowed for refinements and clarifications of the framers' original ideas – and many of them have benefitted country and people. Time could not be factored into those original ideas or the character of the presidents following George Washington, once he was not available. His presidency was thought of as a model for the future but the emergence of political parties was not anticipated. Once the divisions and conflicts among those governing escalated, separation was inevitable but, once again, the Constitution and the elected officials helped the nation keep on growing. It seems that we have been lucky to have had presidents who, beyond their differences and animosities, loved the idea of the Union, and the benefits intrinsic in its formation, even more than their ideologies.
The presidents' character, values and principles have defined their terms and contributed to what we have achieved as a nation. What, in the context of this unit, has been referred to as Lifeskills are essential qualities that I strongly believe an efficient leader needs to have. Washington, with his sense of duty and responsibility, his faithfulness to the Constitution, the emergent nation and the office he occupied, made the Executive a symbol of enduring strength and in service of the greater idea of the United States; Adams, insecure and in the shadow of Washington, persisted in his vision of a safe, neutral people and those years strengthened the country; Jefferson, the figure of the Enlightenment woke up the nation to its geographical expansion, and the natural conflicts such transformation would bring about. His beliefs in a nation where everyone has the power and ability to succeed and prosper, with less interference of the central government, defined political parties and has sustained a nonconformist dialogue for centuries –from both Republicans and Democrats. Even if we can find instances where these three founders made decisions that could be labeled as arbitrary, maybe unconstitutional, the basic idea of a free society, with elected leaders for a predetermined period of time, prevailed.
The development of the American government and its protagonists has not been a perfect, harmonious process but it has certainly strengthened the United States as a nation, domestically and in the world community. Its greatest success may be, though, that both, the political figures and the people who have elected them, are still active participants in the continuous improvement of this model of democracy.
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