Content Background
In my non sophisticated cooking career, I have had my share of cooking catastrophes. Cakes I baked collapsed and “biscuits” I made that were originally meant to be sugar cookies. As I ponder my misfortunate disasters, I now know that I did not properly understand the function or chemical reaction of each ingredient in the recipe. Knowing what role ingredients play and understanding basic chemical reactions would have saved me my share of deplorable creations.
A pancake is called many different names in different languages all around the world. Whether one lives in North America and calls it a flapjack, spends time in France where it is known as a crepe, or Australia where it is considered a pikeleti, either way a pancake is nothing more than a quick bread. A quick bread uses leavening agents other than yeast. Quick breads can be prepared quickly. They do not require culinary skills or the time consuming labor and the climate control needed for traditional yeast breads. Pancakes are composed of flour, a liquid, and a leavening agent, that is then heated in a pan or on a griddle on a stovetop, where they are typically flipped and cooked on both sides.
One key ingredient in making quick breads, cakes, cookies, and other baked goods is the binding agent. Binders are any ingredient that can help a mixture hold its shape or remain bound together. Traditional binding agents include flour and eggs.
The most commonly used food binder is flour. Flour is created by grinding raw grains or roots into a powder and then served in diverse cuisines. Flour adds volume, texture, and taste to most recipes. As explained by Layton and Larsen, “There are three flour components used to develop structure in baked goods. They include protein; wheat and gluten-free flours which are all high in protein. Another component is starch. When starch is combined with water and heat it forms a web, much like how gluten forms a web when using wheat. Unfortunately, starch webs are much less durable than protein webs. While starch can provide some structure, it needs help from protein. The third component is lipids. All flours, no matter wheat or not, contain lipids or just plain ol’ fat. In fact, that is why many high- fat flours are stored in the fridge, because the flour can become rancid when the fat oxidizes. On a positive note, lipids add flavor and help keep the flour’s protein structure from overwhelming the product.”2
The most ubiquitous flour is wheat. Wheat has long been the grain of choice for milling to turn it into flour. Wheat comes from a seed which contains an endosperm, bran and germ. First, is the endosperm. It is 83 percent of the kernels weight and contains the greatest source of proteins and carbohydrates and white flour is produced from it. Then, there is the bran, which makes up about 14½ percent of the kernel weight. Bran is included in whole wheat flour and can be bought separately. Finally, there is the germ which is about 2 ½ percent of the kernel weight. The germ is the embryo of the seed, often separated from flour in milling because the fat content limits flour’s shelf-life.3
Wheat is classified according to hardness, color and growing season. The difference lies in the protein content, with hard wheat containing a higher level of protein than soft. Also, wheat is milled and processed in slightly varying ways to create the different flours.4
Feeling a little adventurous and experimental? Try adding water to wheat flour, knead the mixture into dough, then rinse the glob under water to wash away the starches and fiber, you will be left with a protein mixture called gluten.5 Wheat flour contains different types of proteins, but there are two in particular that contribute to the complexity of wheat, gliadin and glutenin, which are stored together with starch in the endosperm. Layton and Larsen describe “gliadin as a ball with little hooks all over it.”6 This molecule makes the dough stretchy, and provides plasticity.7 Layton and Larsen describes the glutenin molecule as a long, coiled spring8 and provides strength and elasticity to baked goods.9
According to Crosby, “The network of glutenin and gliadin is formed when the long glutenin molecules cross-link with the hooks on the globular gliadin molecules. When dough is kneaded or mixed in water, the hydrated flexible proteins are stretched and aligned in the direction of kneading providing more chances to form cross-links between proteins. As kneading continues, the protein networks combine to form sheets of proteins. This step in the process can be compared to unraveling thread (proteins), and weaving the straightened thread into pieces of cloth (networks), and then pieces of cloth being stitched together to form large sheets of cloth similar to a quilt.”10
The network that is eventually formed is gluten. Gluten, which is Latin for “glue”,11 acts as an adhesive material that can expand and stretch a certain amount without tearing and is responsible for helping trap carbon dioxide in bread dough. Gluten helps create structure and determine texture in final baked goods. Also, the gluten network gives breads and cakes a little more cohesiveness, so when you cut into that tasty lemon cupcake or zucchini bread, they don’t just crumble and fall apart completely.
Flours with low protein contents will generate less gluten and flours with high protein content will create more. Wheat is the most common source of gluten and creates the highest percentage of it. Different strains of wheat have different concentrations of glutenin and gliadin proteins, based on the growing climate, so varying the source of wheat will vary the amount of protein in its flour.12
There is an array of wheat flours on the market that serves different purposes. The most commonly used and readily accessible flour is all-purpose wheat. All-purpose is made from the endosperm of the wheat grain.13 Because it is a blend of hard and soft wheat, this is the go-to flour for pie crusts, pancakes, certain cookies, as well as breading for fried meats. All-purpose flour has 8 to 11 percent gluten.14
Another type of wheat flour is bread flour. This is made entirely from hard wheat. High gluten content helps bread rise because the gluten traps and holds air bubbles as the dough is mixed and kneaded.15 But wait, not to be out done, durum flour has the highest protein content, and thus can produce the most gluten.
For the bakers and cake aficionados, cake flour is made entirely of from soft wheat and contains the lowest protein content which is 5 to 8 percent. The low protein content guarantees a tender texture; as when making baked goods with a high ratio of sugar to flour, this flour will be better to hold its rise and will be less liable to collapse.16
Flour that healthy foodies prefer is whole wheat flour. It is brown in color, and is derived from the complete whole kernel (the bran and germ). Because of the presence of bran it reduces gluten production. When used in bread baking, it gives a nutty flavor and a denser texture when compared to all-purpose flour.17
Finally there is self-rising flour. The name says it all. This variety is premixed flour with baking powder, a chemical leavening agent, and salt. The added ingredients are evenly distributed throughout the flour which aids a consistent rise in baked goods.
Wheat flour substitutes
Most people think of flour in terms of “wheat” flour; however, flour can be ground from a variety of nuts and seeds. Some types of alternative flours available in grocery stores are: almond, buckwheat, oat, and rice. Making pancakes, cookies, cakes, and other pastries can be achieved without wheat flour, but require an understanding about the different proportions, measuring, and mixing of the alternate ingredients being used. The following flours do not contain gluten, yet can still provide structure for baked goods. Although these flours contain proteins, they don’t form good networks to trap bubbles.
To build structure for pancakes that do not contain wheat, one should use a mixture of flours with high and low levels of protein. According to Layton and Larsen “most gluten-free flour blends use a ratio of about 70 percent high-protein flours to 30 percent lower-protein or high-starch flours. This ratio makes a flour blend that acts pretty much like all-purpose wheat flour in pancakes as well as other baked goods.”18 A good mix of different flours helps compensate for the lack of gluten. Another tip to ensure structure in gluten-free pancakes is to add additional eggs to the pancake batter. Egg proteins help provide structure, but the amount of liquid used will need to be reduced by 2 tablespoons.19
A common wheat flour substitute is almond flour. Almond flour is usually made with almonds that have been blanched, meaning without skin and then finely ground to a light, floury texture. Since almond flour lacks gluten, compared to a pancake recipe that calls for wheat, more eggs will need to be added to provide structure to the baked good. On the other hand, almond flour contains more moisture, so baked goods won’t dry out as fast.
Amaranth is an ancient grain. Amaranth contains more protein than any other gluten-free grain and more protein than wheat flour.20 Amaranth has intense, nutty flavor it is most commonly combined in a recipe in a proportion of 1 part to 3 parts of other flours. If wheat is being substituted, 1 cup amaranth can replace 1 cup of wheat flour.
Besides almond and amaranth flours, oat flour is made from ground whole oats. This flour does not contain gluten and tends to make baked goods moister than wheat flour. Oat flour adds a rich, nutty flavor and denser texture. In baked foods that need to rise, oat flour must be combined with other flours.
Two in particular are xanthan and guar gum. Xanthan gum is a sugar-like compound made by mixing aged (fermented) sugars with a certain kind of bacteria. Guar gum is derived from the ground endosperm of guar beans. The husks of the seeds of the guar bean are removed, the seeds are milled, and an off-white powder is then produced. In gluten-free baking, guar gum is used much like xanthan gum. It provides binding, elasticity, and structure for baked goods that do not contain gluten.
Another binding agent is eggs. Eggs have a number of roles in baked goods, but their starring role is as a binder. The protein in the eggs gives structure to the batter so it’s neither stiff nor crumbly. Eggs can also act as a leavener when they are beaten with butter and sugar.21
There are several common binding substitutes people can use in a pancake instead of eggs. Half of a mashed banana works great to replace eggs as it has the binding qualities. It’s best suited for cookies and pancakes as it complements the flavors.
Besides a binding agent, pancakes contain a leavening agent that causes the bread to rise. When using baking soda, which is an alkaline, the pancake must have an acidic ingredient that will react with the baking soda to form carbon dioxide.
Acids and bases have distinctive properties. Many of the foods we eat such as grapes, cottage cheese, eggs, beef, and sweeteners like honey and corn syrup contain acids. Acids give foods a tart or sour taste. Bases, known as alkaline, are characterized by their bitter taste and slippery feel. Some foods that contain alkaline are kale, avocado, and tofu. Commonly used bases are baking soda and alkaline water.
Baking soda is an alkaline leavening agent made of sodium bicarbonate that reacts immediately when dissolved in a liquid and combined with an acid, breaking down into sodium, water and carbon dioxide.22 The chemical equation of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) is:
NaHCO3 -water-> Na+ + HCO3- -acid-> Na+ + H2O + CO2
In most quick bread recipes, the baking soda is mixed with the other dry ingredients before any liquid ingredients are added. In order for baking soda to work properly as a leavening agent, it must be used in recipes that contain acidic ingredients, such as molasses, buttermilk, or chocolate. The chemical reaction produces carbon dioxide gas, which cause the batter or dough to rise.23
Another chemical leavening agent, baking powder, is a mixture of baking soda, cream of tartar, an acidic ingredient, and a starch, such as cornstarch, which prevents clumping of the powder. It is most often used in quick bread recipes that contain no acidic ingredients. It reacts immediately when added to liquids. “Baking powder is often referred to as: “double acting baking powder,” because it causes two separate rising actions to occur in the dough or batter. The first reaction occurs when the baking powder is mixed with liquid ingredients causing carbon dioxide gas to be produced, which causes the batter or dough to rise. The second reaction occurs when heat is applied during the baking process, which causes further expansion.”24
When baking, up to 1 teaspoon of baking powder or ¼ teaspoon baking soda is sufficient to leaven 1 cup of flour in any given recipe. When using baking powder as a substitute for baking soda, four times the amount of baking powder as baking soda will be needed as called for in the recipe. For example, ½ teaspoon baking soda = 2 teaspoons of baking powder. 25
So far we have covered flour, eggs, and leaveners. Another essential ingredient in traditional pancakes is - buttermilk. True buttermilk is the liquid whey left after cream has been churned to create butter. The methods for making buttermilk have changed over the years. In the past, buttermilk was fermented by naturally occurring bacteria as unpasteurized butter cream sat for a length of time before churning. “This process is called “ripening.” In modern times, as all milk and cream are pasteurized, a process that kills the naturally occurring bacteria, buttermilk is made by reintroducing Lactobacillus acidophilus, the probiotic bacteria that gives buttermilk its sour taste.”26
Buttermilk is acidic and the slightly acidic batter helps keep baked goods moist and tender by breaking down long, tough strands of gluten. Buttermilk contributes to the leavening of pancakes. In conjunction with baking soda, buttermilk produces carbon dioxide gas.
Before baking powder was invented, baking soda ruled a home cook’s kitchen, and it needed an acidic ingredient to help it activate and balance its flavor. Buttermilk was just the essential ingredient to do just that.27
While baking soda works well with buttermilk, if a recipe calls for baking powder, take care in substituting buttermilk for regular milk as it upsets the balance of alkali to acid. Buttermilk has more acid than regular milk, which will speed up the release of carbon dioxide and impede the leavening process.28
Comments: