Strategies
When to Teach Students About Form
As mentioned earlier, I have had great success in dealing with contemporary poetry in the classroom. Therefore, I hate to risk losing this positive edge and will continue to start off my school year with the successful lessons I have developed. I think that it is easier for the teacher to emphasize the development of metaphorical thought and creating strong images when dealing with free verse. I have always called attention to line breaks and enjambment in free verse, but will now place more emphasis on talking about the line as form. After I am assured that students have developed a "love of poetry," I will present this sonnet unit, with even more emphasis on form.
Learning Poetic Terms
Throughout their study of poetry, which will essentially last the entire year, students will keep a special section in their notebook for poetic terminology. Work on this list, composed of 40 terms, will be a year long project. Students can only add a definition to the list when they feel comfortable enough with the word to write the definition in their own words. In addition, they will have to include a poem that illustrates the term. I will give them a choice of including a poem they have written or a published poem they have found. To keep them progressing on this task, I will require that ten terms must be completed at the end of each report period.
Techniques for Presenting the Poems and Encouraging Close Reading
A popular question debated among middle school teachers is, Just how much can we ask of our students when it comes to close reading or explication of poetry? Many teachers feel that insistence on close reading will turn kids off and bore them. To a certain extent this may be true, but my own experience with students at this age is that they actually love an intellectual challenge; sometime boredom in the classroom results from low expectations and mind numbing activities. Middle school is often an intellectual holding ground; much of what goes on in our classrooms consists of simple review of what students have already learned. I think if the challenge of explication is presented as a puzzle and not as the teacher lecturing and providing the right answers, students will experience satisfaction when successful in the task. My own students balk and groan each week when I assign a close reading and written response to a selected poem. However, I notice a real sense of accomplishment when those close readings result in insightful analyses and connections. In reality, they enjoy the intellectual work.
Frances Mayes states, "Some people fear that analysis takes away from enjoyment; 'explain it, drain it,' they say. Protracted analysis can wear you out, but good critical consideration is creative and rewarding." (Mayes, p. 10) A technical way of explaining close reading involves two steps. The first is observing facts and details about the text. Many of the questions provided later in the unit help the student make these observations and guide them in the observational process. The second step involves interpreting the observations. This is an inductive process, moving from details to interpretation based on the observed details. A more eloquent definition of close reading is provided by Sven Birkerts in The Electric Life. "To close read a poem is, in part, to create a receptivity, a silence, in yourself so that the work can leave an impression. Each reading represents a deepening involvement with the work in question. The only talent required is a talent for focus and deceleration. To read poetry as it is meant to be read, you must push your way through the shallow-field perceptual mode that modern life makes habitual." (Birkerts, 1989, p.91)
How does this translate to a classroom of rambunctious adolescents who have trouble focusing on more than a sound bite? Determining the appropriate level of rigor for close readings is a challenge for teachers, as is creating a stimulating and nurturing environment where students can take intellectual risks. Much patience is needed from the teacher and she must respect all responses as she guides students to disciplined, close adherence to the text. Responses that are way off should be dignified and the student's thought process gently moved in a different direction. I present methods for large group discussion, small group discussion and presentation, and guidelines for individual close readings. Much of the focus and discussion of the poems presented in this unit will relate to their membership in the sonnet classification, but I still want students to deal with other aspects of the poems. Although the sonnetness of the poem may be the first thing noticed and discussed, students will also be asked to focus on interpretation, craft, and other elements they have studied previously.
A Simple Approach That Forces Involvement
I use several techniques for making poetry accessible for this age group. The first method forces the involvement of every student, but is also completely non-threatening. It is a simple approach that can be done with an entire class, even when students haven't read the poem prior to class. First, I encourage at least three oral readings of the poem. The first reading can be done by the teacher, especially if the poem contains unfamiliar vocabulary. If the teacher is lucky enough to have recordings of poets reading their own work, this of course can take the place of a teacher reading. Second and third readings can include student volunteers reading the poem in its entirety, or dividing the poem into stanzas or lines, and "reading around". After the final reading, students are asked to identify three things in the poem. First, they must place a * by the line or phrase that they like the most, for any reason. It may be because of the meaning, the unique word choice, the metaphorical language, or simply because of its originality. Second, they must underline the line or phrase that is the most important to them in the poem. The third response is placing a ? next to a line or phrase they don't understand.
After students spend a few minutes privately responding to the poem, the class discussion can begin in several ways. Often I ask students what they want to start with, the *'s or the ?'s. Or, I may simply say that everyone is to first share his or her *ed phrase or line. Whatever the approach, this method usually assures that all students have been able to "grab onto" something in the poem. The discussion usually blossoms. As the teacher directs this discussion, care can be taken to encourage students to use textual evidence to support interpretations. Middle school children, like all readers, tend to find a single phrase or image in a poem that "hits home" and then take their interpretation on a path clearly not intended by the poet. Insisting on a close adherence to the words on the page is excellent training for all close reading that they will need to do in their high school and college careers. During discussion the teacher must also remind students to use poetic terminology in their discussion and model this practice themselves
After the group has developed some level of comfort with the sonnet, the teacher can move the discussion in the direction of examining the form and its interplay with meaning. In Classroom Activity #2, presented later in the curriculum unit, questions are suggested that the teacher can use to guide students toward an understanding of how poets make use of the sonnet's form.
Small Group Presentation of a Poem
A second method involves dividing the class into small groups of 3 or 4 students. Each group is assigned a poem and a criteria sheet for how the poem must be presented to the class. If this method is used for discussing sonnets, the criteria list should include such items as: identify type of sonnet, discuss diversions from sonnet form that might be present in the poem, point out what effect the sonnet form has on the overall effect of the poem, discuss why the sonnet form is or is not appropriate to the subject of this poem, offer an interpretive analysis of the poem, support interpretations with textual evidence, present the poem in a clear and creative manner, and use at least five poetic terms from our list when presenting the poem. Groups are given 30 to 60 minutes to prepare and then present the poem to the class. Again, after the group presentation, the entire class should participate in a discussion. The teacher can make use of the questions presented in Activity #2.
Reader Response Questions to Aid Independent Reading of Poetry
Finally, when I want students to spend a longer amount of time exploring a poem individually, I use a reader response guide. This list of questions works well when a poem is assigned for homework, in preparation for a discussion the following day. All of the students read the poem independently and give written responses to the following questions: In addition to the criteria listed in the previous group work section, the following questions encourage the student to be thoughtful and attentive to the poem, but fall short of demanding a formal interpretation. What do you notice about the poem? What words, lines, images stand out? What do you like immediately? What don't you like? What is puzzling? What is surprising? What words and allusions need to be clarified? What does the poem make you feel? What does the poem make you think of? What does the image allow you to imagine or fantasize? What assumptions have you made about the poet, about who's speaking, and about what's happening? What is the tone of the voice of the speaker? What questions do you have for the poem?
After students have made personal responses to the poem, the entire class discusses the poem, using the same questions as starting points. Following the class discussions, students should return to their original responses and write further on the questions: Why did you find yourself paying attention to these elements? What made you react that way? What sense might this make now? Why did you respond that way? What (in the poem or in what you brought to it) evoked these thoughts? Forcing the students to write after class discussion ensures that they have clarified and expanded their original responses to the poem.
The informal journaling that results from the reader response approach is sufficient in and of itself; however, these student jottings can also serve as a great pre-writing step to a more formal response paper or analytical essay.
Sonnets to Read
Sonnets will be presented to the students in three groupings. The first grouping will consist of sonnets chosen simply for their adherence to the strictly defined meter, rhyme, and line length patterns of the Petrarchan and Shakespearean forms. These will be used in activities designed to reinforce these basic form elements. The second group of sonnets will be used for more in depth readings and explications, with the goal of helping students understand the more subtle ways that form adds to the overall meanings of the sonnets. The third group of sonnets represents variations on sonnets that poets have made. Again, these variations will be examined in light of how the variations are related to meaning and effect. Almost all of the sonnets mentioned below are found easily on the internet. Web addresses for Sonnet Central and the American Academy of Poets are listed in the bibliography.
Sonnet Group #1 – Introducing Basic Form Constraints
Middle school children respond favorably to exercises that feature inductive reasoning. The problem solving nature of this type of exercise is fun and promotes active learning. An inductive method of introducing the rhyme schemes for the two major types of sonnet should be effective. I intend to present three examples of both Petrarchan and Shakespearean sonnet and let the students state the rules concerning rhyming patterns and syllable counts.
Petrarchan sonnets that would work well for this exercise because they don't vary from the prescribed format are "Composed Upon Westminster Bridge," by William Wordsworth; "From the Dark Tower," by Countee Cullen, and "How Do I Love Thee," by Elizabeth Barrett Browning. Shakespearean sonnets to use are "Putting in the Seed," by Robert Frost; "To Sleep," by Charlotte Smith, and "Dawn in New York," by Claude McKay. A part of the exercise will be asking students to articulate the differences between the two forms. If students don't come up with it on their own, the teacher may have to pose questions to point out the rhyming couplet in the Shakespearean sonnet and the octave/sestet split in the Petrarchan.
Sonnet Group #2 – Encouraging Further Explication and Analysis of the Form's Significance
Instead of beginning with sonnets from the early years of the sonnet timeline, this unit will present 20th century sonnets first and then work backwards in a chronological sequence. This strategy results from my often stated fear that I don't want to overwhelm my eighth graders. My thought is that the obstacle of difficult language is more likely to be absent from more recent sonnets than from sonnets written in earlier centuries. I have chosen only ten sonnets to offer to students for directed, close reading, in keeping with the timeline of a seven day unit. However, additional sonnet titles are provided to supplement and extend the teaching. The teacher can decide the best methods for presenting these poems. I have discussed large group, small group, and individual methods earlier in the unit. I think that eighth graders are capable of reading a few sonnets and making generalizations about how the form can aid the overall meaning of poems. All of the questions put forth in Activity #2 later in the unit will help students examine these poems. Some of the questions are referred to as I present the poems.
Presenting Countee Cullen's "From the Dark Tower" as the first sonnet to discuss indicates to students that the sonnet is not a dead form and that poets from many cultural backgrounds have found the form suitable to their themes. The sonnet follows the Petrarchan form we are familiar with in the opening octave. The sestet's rhyme pattern is ccddee, a variation from the two most common rhyme patterns and so offers students an opportunity to notice an interesting variation. This poem reflects many of the themes that poets explored during the Harlem Renaissance. The symbolic connections are strong but not too elusive for middle school aged children. They will be capable of figuring out that the "buds that cannot bloom at all/ in light" refers to a unique situation of Black Americans during the 1920's. The pride in Negritude that was blossoming during this time period is revealed in Cullen's lines "the night whose sable breast relieves the stark/white stars is no less lovely being dark." The sonnet form allows Cullen to put forth his concerns about the present state of American Blacks and assertions that things won't always be that way. In the sestet he reflects on the concerns of the octave. Cullen chooses to end this Petrarchan sonnet with a very strong and disturbing Shakespearean couplet. It serves as an amplification of the concerns of the sonnet; black hearts bleed and wait.
"Putting in the Seed," by Robert Frost features very accessible language for eighth graders. It strictly follows the Shakespearean pattern of rhyming quatrains and an ending couplet and demonstrates how imagery works well in a sonnet, although the rhyme pattern varies slightly: abababab instead of ababcdcd. Frost's three quatrains seem to build on each other as he develops the images of spring, his passion for the earth, and the connections between these springtime activities of nature and human love. This poem is also a good example of how the sonnet can begin with an image drawn from the external world and then compare it with a state of mind or emotion. The metaphorical ending couplet "the sturdy seedling with arched body comes/ shouldering its way and shedding the earth crumbs" presents a good example of a strong closure.
Moving backwards to the 19th century, it seems appropriate to include one of the best known sonnets, especially because it also represents the overly emotional tone of many sonnets from this time period. "How Do I Love Thee?" (#43) from Sonnets From The Portuguese by Elizabeth Barrett Browning is a straightforward and old fashioned love poem, and I think for those reasons my middle school female students might love it. Students may have a preconceived notion that the theme of all sonnets is love, but hopefully through exposure to the sonnets in this unit, they will come to understand that poets have dealt with all kinds of subjects in their sonnets. When students attempt to understand the importance of the sonnet form to this poem, they may not observe any complex form/meaning connections, for the poem is almost like a list poem. However, I do think that Browning achieves a wholeness and uses a logical thought pattern that concludes with the poet thinking about her deepening love even after death. Although it is difficult to explain the change of course after the octave, I think students can sense the reflective tone of the sestet.
Another representative sonnet from the 19th century fits into a popular category of sonnets, that of sonnets about sonnets. The Sonnet Central website has a large collection of these sonnets if students are interested in reading more. "A Sonnet is a Moment's Monument," by Dante Gabriel Rossetti, presents a phrase that is often quoted by scholars of the sonnet. Students will enjoy the oxymoron of a moment's monument and can meet the challenge of explaining Rossetti's particular definition of a sonnet as well as his second comparison, "A sonnet is a coin." A second oxymoron later in the poem, "dead, deathless hour," also provides a challenge for interpretation. Some other qualities that students might observe include the use of alliteration, which one critic suggests is "typical of Rossetti's effort to imitate the prolongation of the moment." (Wagner, p. 131) This is perhaps the most difficult of the ten sonnets presented in this group, and although the language is a bit dense, students may be able to discuss the relationship of the sestet to the octave. Is it a response to it? Does it confirm the point made or contradict it?
Middle school children often have a fascination with death, so "Rest," by Christina Rossetti, may appeal to them. This Petrarchan form contains another variation in the sestet, a cdceed rhyme scheme. Lines like "darkness more clear than noonday holdeth her" and "silence more musical than any song" present interesting riddles that will intrigue this age group. The octave/sestet split does lend itself to Rossetti's treatment of the subject. In the first eight lines she paints an image of death and then comments on Eternity in the sestet.
The Romantic period is when sonnets were reborn, thanks to Williams Wordsworth. Early in his writing life Wordsworth disdained the sonnet, but later began to view it as a form that didn't have to be sentimental. Although he wrote over 500 sonnets, only a few were in the Shakespearean form. "Composed Upon Westminster Bridge" is one of the most often anthologized Wordsworth sonnets. In this poem Wordsworth describes the city in the early morning, when it is most like nature. The octave consists of a suggestion that the city is human-like, wearing a garment of nature, and then moves to a list of urban images. In the sestet he reemphasizes and expresses awe at the possibility that the city can be as beautiful and calming as nature. Paul Fry suggests that there is an actual change of thought at the end of the poem, when "Wordsworth seems to stumble on a paradox at the end: When the houses seem to sleep (rather than to be awake) we realize for the first time that they're alive, and the inanimate city itself suddenly discloses a 'mighty heart.'" (Fry, July 25, 2005)
A second Wordsworth poem that students will enjoy belongs to the previously mentioned category of sonnets on sonnets. "Nuns Fret Not…" is probably one of the most easily understood of all of Wordsworth's sonnets. The metaphorical connections between the sonnet and prison and the sonnet's form to a scanty plot of ground will be easily deciphered and enjoyed. The change at the octave/sestet is most evident in this poem. The first eight lines catalogue various lives that are confined in some way, then Wordsworth switches to his comments on the confines of the sonnet and how they can provide "brief solace." The last thought, "Pleased if some Souls (for such there needs must be)/ Who have felt the weight of too much liberty,/ Should find brief solace there, as I have found," can provoke a lively discussion. Even though students of this age don't think of their lives as having "too much liberty," they should be able to reflect on the comfort that can come from structure.
Although John Keats wrote relatively few sonnets, some of them are considered to be close to perfection. "When I Have Fears" will appeal to middle school students because it speaks of the poet's desires, longings and goals and his fear that he may not live long enough to fulfill them. The story of this young poet's early death will endear him to this age group. Questions like "What is happening in each of the three quatrains?" and "Do the poet's thoughts shift or grow?" will help students see that the three quatrains are separate identities that build on the theme. In the first quatrain Keats laments that he may not get to write everything that is in his mind or read all there is to read. Next he frets over the possibility of missing out on romantic possibilities. In the third quatrain he speaks to a particular person he will miss. The powerful language of the ending couplet, "Till Love and Fame to nothingness do sink," provides an example of the strength of the Shakespearean ending.
A third poem from the Romantic period was written by Charlotte Smith. Many of her poems are quite appropriate for middle school students. I chose "To the Moon" because I have often had students who love to use moon, star, and sky images in their poetry. The first quatrain speaks to the moon appreciatively, mentioning her delight in watching its movement. In the second quatrain the speaker raises the thought that the moon might provide comfort for the wretched, introducing a related, but more intense reflection. Elaboration on this idea fills the third quatrain, and the poem ends with a concluding, strong wish of the speaker. Students will be able to see the usefulness of the Shakespearean sonnet's structure to Charlotte Smith's subject matter.
No curriculum unit on the sonnet can be put forth without including at least one sonnet written by Shakespeare. Shakespeare's 154 sonnets, taken together, are frequently described as a sequence, and this is generally divided into two sections. Sonnets 1-126 focus on a young man and the speaker's friendship with him, and Sonnets 127-52 focus on the speaker's relationship with a woman. However, in only a few of the poems in the first group is it clear that the person being addressed is a male. And most of the poems in the sequence as a whole are not direct addresses to another person. Again bending to popular cultural literacy, the inclusion of Sonnet #18, "Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer's Day?" seems appropriate for middle school. Students should recognize that the first line is a question, and then understand that the speaker realizes that no, the young man is far superior to a summer day, the comparison is not enough. The speaker then goes on to elaborate on why the young man is finer than a summer's day. His youth will not fade, nor will his beauty. The ending couplet wraps up the speaker's adoration by declaring that the poem will give him immortality.
Sonnet Group #3 – Variations on Sonnet Form
Variations on strict rhyme schemes, meter, and number of lines are numerous and these departures do not come only from contemporary poets, but from early practitioners of the form as well. Presenting sonnets from this category to students will add to their understanding of form's integral importance to a poem.
A sonnet written in the early 1600's by Ben Jonson provides a clear example of changes in form that enhance the poem's statement. "On My First Son" was written by Jonson about a son who died when he was only seven years old. The sonnet is only 12 lines long, a truncated sonnet. Students should easily be able to grasp the poet's desire to cut the sonnet short, just as his son's life was cut short. Jonson also varied the traditional rhyme scheme and uses an aabbccddeeff scheme. This deviation from the traditional sonnet form might not be as easy for students to grasp, but they may sense that it is more of a nursery rhyme or childlike rhyme pattern. The meter in this poem also illustrates a deviation. The first two lines are strict iambic pentameter, then the meter becomes irregular. Could this be a structural reference to the confusion and wrenching apart of Jonson's emotional being?
The major deviation in the sonnet "Acquainted With the Night," by Robert Frost is the use of terza rima. This is a rhyme scheme of aba, bcb, cdc, ded, etc. and was used by Dante in the Divine Comedy. Frost's fourth stanza is actually dad and then he concludes with a rhyming couplet, aa. Students can be asked why the three line stanzas were chosen by Frost instead of the traditional quatrains in a sonnet. Was there a reason he returned to the a rhyme in the fourth stanza instead of moving to an e? Why did he return to the a in the concluding couplet and to a repetition of the first line? Is this a poem about loneliness, the problems with city life, or Frost's general encounters with the darker issues of his life?
Many middle school students are already familiar with e.e.cummings and they are intrigued with his wild use of punctuation, capitalization and line breaks. His sonnet "next to of course god America i…" makes use of his characteristic form innovations plus uses a mix of the Shakespearean and Petrarchan sonnet forms. This poem, which is enclosed in quotes (except for the last line) is a satire on speakers who make use of overly patriotic and religious clichés. Ask students why cummings uses a mixture of two sonnet forms. Might the mixing of the two help to show a mix of confused ideology? Why did cummings string together the words "deafanddumb?" Why did he create a line break in the middle of the word beautiful? Another very obvious form deviation is the last line, which is separated from the rest of the poem, uses correct capitalization and punctuation, and is not in quotes. This line also includes an unusual syntax, cummings says "drank rapidly" instead of rapidly drank. Why this inversion? One critic suggests that "this syntactical inversion serves to indicate the similar transformation of the sonnet form which cummings has effected in terms of form and further serves to point to the inverted philosophy of the speaker of lines one through thirteen." (Davis, 1970, p. 15)
A contemporary poet, John Hollander, wrote an entire book of poems entitled Powers of Thirteen, in which he writes sonnets of 13 lines each. Each line contains 13 syllables. What fun middle school students will have with these sonnets, posing theories about what Hollander was up to. In the sonnets Hollander speaks to an unknown person. This mysterious figure seems to be a female friend, perhaps an old friend or a rarely seen lover. However, at least one critic claims that the poems are addressed to his imagination, not an actual person. If the entire collection can be shown to students, Hollander's choice to write sonnets of 13 lines will be more powerful, but one poem can work as well . Sonnet #6, "Fancy Pants," is light and characterizes a younger sister, to whom everyone paid attention. This child was a mischief maker and occasionally worked in collusion with the speaker in the poem. If the poems are really written to Hollander's imagination, then what might the little sister represent? The poems in this collection are also good examples of what contemporary sonnet writers do with line breaks and enjambment. This collection is available as a volume, but the entire group is also published in John Hollander: Selected Poetry. If students are interested in the 13 line poems of Hollander, they might want to investigate the 18 line sonnets written by another contemporary poet, John Berryman in his Dream Songs.
I will present a final sonnet here that deviates from traditional form, written by a contemporary poet who was a participant in the Yale July Intensive Seminar, Mary Carol Moran. She has given permission to include the poem in this unit.
October Song
An ambient pair of broccoli brains, dancing
above a moonlit sidewalk, weaves through
the night in silent crispiness. They glance
past wilting celery, stalking a more fertile bough.
The ocean echoes back with blood-blue words
and tells them tales of a cauliflower perdu,
who once sang summer hymns of waving chords
but now drips peas down a column of roux.
They pause to hurry, wondering what to say.
Could the sea be right? They shiver, fight
the ancient calm that dims their fear. They
must deny, knowing winter will bring blight
despite the promises of spring. If only a welcoming
yellow, an ear of corn, a squash, would light them home.
Although the rhyme sequence of Moran's poem follows a strict Shakespearean form, she uses line breaks to create interesting effects. Earlier sonneteers were much more likely to end stop most or all of their lines, although both Shakespeare and Milton both did a lot of enjambing. Contemporary sonnet writers enjamb almost everything and use end stopping for pointed effect. The two end stopped lines 8 and 9, bracket the turn in the poem (classic sonnet turn). End stopping is a way to say to the reader, "Pay attention now." Moran's poem also introduces to students the craft element used by contemporary sonnet writers of slant rhyme or off rhyme. Many of her rhymes are not full rhymes, for instance dancing and glance and welcoming and home. Through and bough are sight rhymes, words which look alike but aren't pronounced alike. Students should be asked to observe what is happening in each quatrain. Do they build on each other or does each quatrain pronounce a shift in the poet's thought process?
Other Sonnets to Use
Students and teachers might want to examine more sonnets written by African American poets of the early 20th century. Two poets associated with the Harlem Renaissance, Countee Cullen and Claude McKay, wrote often in the sonnet form. An African American poet who preceded that time period and published many sonnets is Paul Laurence Dunbar.
Three witty sonnets were written by John Hollander, the creator of Powers of Thirteen, in his book Rhymes's Reason: A Guide to English Verse. In this collection, Hollander writes explanatory verse for all major English poetic forms. His three poems on the sonnet explain the Shakespearean and Petrarchan forms, and one expounds on variations. Students will definitely enjoy untangling his explanations.
As mentioned earlier, sonnets written about sonnets proliferate. Some of the more well known in this category are "On the Sonnet" by John Keats, "Scorn Not the Sonnet" by William Wordsworth, "An Enigma" by Edgar Allan Poe, "Sonet" by Edwin Arlington Robinson, and "To Mr. Henry Cary, on the Publication of His Sonnets" by Anna Seward.
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