Strategies
Introduction to Arguments
First, I must introduce the concept of postmodernism without sinking deeply into the philosophy itself. It will be necessary to give my students an idea about how arguments can be made in spite of what we may think of as an unarguable fact, but not confuse them with philosophical ramblings that may cause too much confusion. I have used several examples that might do the trick.
If I ask my students to give me the name of the first President of the United States they will quickly respond with the name George Washington. I then, often to their surprise, counter this generally established claim. I tell them that John Hancock was the first President of the Second Continental Congress at the end of the Revolutionary War. I let them know that this governmental body made rules known as the Articles of Confederation that were the basis for American law for almost 8 years. There were other presidents after Hancock and before Washington. I then ask them why they think this isn't regularly taught. The discussion that follows grants me the opportunity to help my students understand that our history is as much about the perception of facts as it is about the facts themselves.
I also like to use textbooks as proof of this proposition. I have three books at my podium; Howard Zinn's A People's History of the United States, Paul Johnson's A History of the American People, and the class textbook. I briefly explain a bit about each of them and then pose the question, why is there a need for all three? (I make sure to tell them that there are plenty more, Samuel Eliot Morrison, etc.). We of course then talk about how perspectives can be very different and naturally manifest themselves in the writings of different historians who hold some particular view. It is then useful to ask the question, which of the perspectives is the right one? Again, it helps bring about a "teachable moment" whereby students begin to understand what postmodern theorists claim: there are many aspects of 'right', but all of us must decide which one counts.
It can also be useful to begin the discussion by asking their perspective on school rules and then follow with an administrative view of the rules. Then make clear the possible perspectives of the teachers or parents, giving them some idea that there are so many ways of looking at what may appear to them to be a simple matter of black and white. For the purposes of this unit, this discussion allows students to see that there is often variance in perception when it comes to rules and laws.
Teaching the Formation of Arguments
Next, I will teach students the proper way to make a substantive argument. Students should understand that gathering information and using it wisely is the difference between having an opinion and making a persuasive argument. In cases where I want to model some specific skill I like to start by allowing complete liberty in the exercise.
For example, I will choose a school rule that might be especially egregious, then ask students to give reasons as to why the rule is offensive, inappropriate, or even insulting. The result is usually a hodge-podge of loosely knit ideas that have no real beginning or end. Most of them have little to do with the merit of the rule and more to do with their desire for absolute freedom. Expecting as much, I prepare myself to address the question legally. That is, I may make some references to specific laws regarding the rights of minors and school law precedent. In essence I model for students the way one might make a valid argument. I then usually do a small lecture that details the protocol for forming a lucid claim.
Students are asked to 1) write a position statement-for example: "we believe that it is against our civil rights as students 16 years of age and citizens of the United States that we are disallowed from leaving campus for lunch" 2) accumulate evidence (not opinions) that would support the position, e.g.: by law students are allowed to withdraw from school at the age of 16 and are granted the right to have a driver's license, so why wouldn't we be seen, in the eyes of the law, as cognizant enough to take a lunch break" 3) think about why the law/ rule may exist and then argue that this line of reasoning is ill-conceived, e.g.: "it is likely that the school thinks that a situation might arise putting teenagers in danger during an off campus lunch, but the likelihood of midday crimes is far less that those in the evening, especially since our school is located across the street from Burger King." These hypothetical examples might not be the most compelling in history but they are far better than "because rules are stupid man"! The point is that students begin to understand the need to dig deeper than raw emotion and make a substantial, relevant, valid, points.
Teaching Persuasive/ Argumentative Writing
Third, I will have to be certain to give proper examples about the assignments listed above as well as examples of writing that are appropriate to the Social Studies class.
Of course, writing a formal Social Studies essay is much more complicated than the example given above. And again it is important to model what is to be expected.
As in the previous example I begin with a lecture that involves the introduction of a writing design or rubric (will be included in another draft) that should assist students with their writing. The design is based on the standards of the College Board and is essential if my AP students are to score well on the US History exam. The rubric lays out what needs must be met. There must be an introductory paragraph beginning with a broad general statement and ending with a thesis statement, much like the position statement spoken of earlier. The thesis statement must correspond to the prompt. The body paragraphs must be organized into separate ideas and each must support the thesis statement. I ask that my students write a conclusion statement, but it seems clear that the College Board is not concerned with one.
I then break down the essay into each of its component parts and teach each part separately. The topic paragraph is the most important, so we begin there. I tell students to make general statements that will answer the who, what, where, when, and why of the topic involved. Normally I use a sample prompt and then model appropriate writing (although this essay may indicate the futility in that venture). I begin with a broad statement that will give the reader an idea of what period of time the essay will address and move methodically toward the thesis statement. It may look something like this:
"During the late 1800's and early 1900's the United States began a new program of expansion. The American government thought it necessary to expand beyond our borders to keep pace with other imperial powers. There were, however, many complications associated with this policy, including the development of extreme forms of nationalism around the world that led to WWI. The US, after entering the conflict in 1917, sought to protect its interests abroad and at home. The result was a period of incomprehensible civil rights and civil liberties violations whereby the federal government invaded the right to free speech, censored the press, and imprisoned innocent citizens."
After I compose each sentence students are asked about the important elements of the statement made. The purpose, of course is to determine which of the essential questions have been answered so that we may thoughtfully answer those remaining. The first statement answers 'when', and once we as a class have drawn this conclusion we my move on. My goal in this exercise is to provide a suitable model that will serve as a pattern that will be recurrently followed during the year eventually helping students develop quality writing habits. To review construction of topic paragraphs I often do what I call a JUMBLE. I write a paragraph and then cut and paste the sentences so that they seem fairly disconnected. I use the overhead projector and ask the students to unscramble the sentences and put them in the proper order. I have found this exercise to be great reinforcement for teaching how to write a topic paragraph.
Supporting paragraphs should contain two important elements. Each should have a transition statement that helps the essay move smoothly from one to another and each should contain historical evidence to support the thesis. A common trick of the trade is to make sure that the thesis covers two or three different topics that then serve as the categories for three body paragraphs. This also makes outlining the essay and creating transition sentences much easier. Students have three distinct groupings provided in the sample above and may pool information into those specific columns. The transitions are then quite simple. Topic sentences for body paragraphs might look like these:
- First, our government sought to silence those who were protesting our involvement in the war.
- Secondly, our government formed bureaucratic agencies to censor the press and spread American propaganda.
- Lastly, the federal government jailed private citizens and disallowed them their civil liberties.
In each case students are responsible for giving historical facts that will, at least in part, help to prove their assertions. In the end students have a fairly simple recipe for concocting an essay that will not leave a bad taste in your mouth. I normally will not assign full essays immediately after completing these teaching strategies. It helps to do one piece at a time. In some cases I grade each individually. In others the class will do peer editing in heterogeneous groups. I also find it useful to choose, from previous student work, paragraphs, transition sentences, and thesis statements that demonstrate both typical problems students have with writing and those that show great command of writing skills, to critique as a class.
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