Strategies
This unit is designed to take just over two weeks, or about 13 school days. My students are high school seniors, aged 17 - 20. I teach in a resource classroom, which means that a special education teacher, myself, provides the instruction to students with disabilities. Due to the fact that I must design my instruction to meet curriculum standards as well as IEP goals, it is important to have strategies that address a variety of areas.
Unit Goal
As I said before, the overarching goal of this unit is for students to be able to recognize the various methods of indirect characterization (how a character speaks, thinks, acts, looks, and the effect he or she has on others) within the speeches in a Shakespearean play and analyze the character based on those observations. In order to introduce the actualization of this skill, I will begin the unit by choosing a character from one of the plays on which we focused in the Shakespeare and the Human Character seminar and pick speeches that demonstrate the various methods. For example, in 1 Henry IV, Act 1, Scene 2 1 3, Hal is alone when he delivers his, "I know you all, and will awhile uphold the unyoked humor of your idleness" speech, which shows us not only Hal's private thoughts but also his plan of action. It could also be argued that it demonstrates the effect he wants to have on others. I will explain in more detail how to lead students through that analysis further in this section, and it will also be referenced in the classroom activities. This instruction will be provided using the teaching and learning strategies presented below, specifically by using a spread out scaffolding technique. Scaffolding will be explained within this strategy section. With proper scaffolding, appropriate graphic organizers and group activities, my goal is that students will be able to independently identify signifiers of character and analyze the characters in a given play - Macbeth for my purposes.
Another aspect of my unit is getting students to think about how their words reveal certain things about their character and that they should therefore think about what they say and how they say it. However, I also want them to realize that when speaking to someone else, that person may also be being 'careful' about what they say and how they say it, so we should exercise caution in trusting or believing everything we hear. In order to teach these seemingly conflicting ideas, I will provide students with a variety of situations in which they must develop responses and then attempt to interpret the meaning behind what other students (and myself) say (see Classroom Activity 2). This will be more of a discussion and contemplative point than presented as something that will always be true; therefore I will design my instruction to emphasize discussion-based learning.
Scaffolding
The concept of scaffolding is based on Lev Vygotsky's Social Learning theory, which separates problem solving and other skills into three separate categories: those that a student can perform independently, those that cannot be performed even with help, and those that fall between those two extremes - tasks that can be performed with help from others. Vygotsky calls that last category the "Zone of Proximal Development," which is defined as the distance between a child's "actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving" and the higher level of "potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers 1 4." In other words, learning occurs in this zone of proximal development (ZPD), the place where a student can perform a task under adult guidance or with peer collaboration that could not be achieved alone. There are several different elements to consider when using scaffolding as an instructional approach, including (among others) to tailor the scaffolding according to curricular and student needs, to provide constant feedback, and to help the student generalize the skill to other contexts 1 5.
The following activity provides an example of how to scaffold for students. Given the assignment to complete "Character Trading Cards," the following steps may be used to scaffold the assignment.
- Teacher: Create a transparency sheet with a blank or partially completed character trading card projected onto an overhead screen. Use a "think aloud" type process to fill out the character trading card in front of the class.
- Class: Teacher and students work together to fill in the character trading card. As students make suggestions, the teacher writes on the overhead while students simultaneously fill in answers on their own worksheets.
- Group: Students work either in partners or small groups (depending on the size of the class and/or teacher preference) to complete a character trading card.
- Individual: Students work independently to demonstrate mastery of the skill (completing a character trading card in this assignment) and practice to make the skill automatic.
In this unit, I am using scaffolding in several different ways. In the same vein of which I just spoke, I will scaffold for the students how to identify the various methods of characterization within Shakespearean speeches. So for example, I will have a copy of one of his character's speeches on a transparency and talk through it with the students to identify the type(s) of characterization taking place. I will use a different speech to complete the assignment with the class, another to complete as a group, and the individual practice will take place during the actual reading of the play. The difference is that this scaffolding process will have to be much more drawn out than the simpler task of creating a character playing card. There may be three or four days spent at each level of the scaffolding before moving on to the next level.
Character Analysis using Scaffolding
I previously mentioned Hal's speech in 1 Henry IV, Act 1, Scene 2. My overhead projection will have side-by-side versions of the speech in its original language and the speech in modern language (as presented in the No Fear Shakespeare text). Below the speech will be questions regarding each of the five main types of indirect characterization. There will also be two questions leading the students to making an analysis of the character. Students will be provided with copies of the same organizer that is being projected (see Appendix B). A large part of analyzing the characters will be discussion-based. By listing out the various things students observe via the methods of indirect characterization and then putting those things together, students are being led through the process as a group. In terms of the aforementioned speech, the following sample answers could be given to the worksheet questions:
What is he saying? Try to explain in your own words what is being said in this speech. Hal is saying that he is going to keep acting like a bad kid so that when he finally decides to act like a king, everybody will think he's great because they are comparing how he used to be to how he is.
Do we hear any private thoughts in this speech? Ms. S said that Hal is alone when he gives this speech, so it expresses his private thoughts. I think this shows that it expresses his true thoughts.
What is the effect of this character on others? Can we tell from this speech? He wants his effect on others to be to eventually think he's great, but I don't know if that's how people really think.
Are any actions discussed in this speech? What are they? Yes - he talks about continuing to be bad, to exhibit "loose behavior" until he "throws it off."
Can we tell what the character looks like from this speech? No.
Given all the above details, what can we infer about this character? I think he is just making excuses so that he can keep being bad.
Do you know anyone like this and/or can you identify with this character? Well, my brother makes excuses for when he does bad things.
This activity can be scaffolded with the different speeches by the teacher first answering the questions on the worksheet for or with the class, and eventually leading up to the class answering the questions on their own. Once students have filled in the entire sheet, the class can then have a discussion including each of the student's responses and opinions.
Scaffolding with the Text
The other way I will use scaffolding is through the type of reading material that I will provide to the students. In order to provide the students with information about the plot, I will introduce Macbeth using an over-sized comic strip format that simply provides a framework with which to understand the plot. As we actually begin to read the play, we will begin with the graphic novel version, which uses the original language, but is still accompanied by pictures and short synopses of the acts and scenes. As we get into the play, we will use the No Fear Shakespeare, which presents side-by-side versions of the text, with the original on the left pages and modern translations on the right pages. This will allow us to work back and forth between the two versions and monitor understanding as we read.
Routine
Structure and routine are extremely important for all students, but especially for students with disabilities. A resource classroom is just as likely to contain a student who falls within the autistic spectrum and has no adaptability for change as it is likely to contain a student with learning disabilities who is simply well below grade level in reading. The nature of special education is that we are serving a variety of students with a variety of disabilities and our deliverance of instruction must be highly individualized while also addressing the entire class. Routine is one way to establish consistency and address classroom management as a whole while also addressing the behavioral shortcomings of some students.
One way I will provide routine within this unit is to develop warm up activities related to Macbeth and character. I begin each class period throughout the year with a warm up activity, so these will keep with a pre-established routine. These warm up activities will be a mix of reminding the students what we worked on / read the previous day, as well as prompts to help them think about / analyze various topics, or prepare them for that day's material. An example of a warm up activity may be: "Macbeth received a prophecy from the three witches that he would one day be king. If you were told that you would be king (or queen), how would you react? Would you tell people?" This type of warm up makes a reference to prior knowledge and requires students to put themselves into the literature and draw on their experiences and knowledge of themselves and their character to predict a response.
Strategy Instruction
There is a plethora of information available on how specific strategy instruction is beneficial for all students, but especially for students with disabilities. Cognitive strategy instruction focuses on metacognition, which is the understanding a person has about how he or she learns - thinking about thinking, if you will. There are many different types of cognitive strategies, and often, more than one strategy is used; in fact, research indicates that successful learners use numerous strategies 1 7. Examples of cognitive strategies include visualization, making associations, chunking, questioning, underlining, and using mnemonics. As part of my role as the special educator, I often provide my students with instruction in how to use strategies. Even if I am simply providing an example of one of the strategies (as I will do with giving a mnemonic for the methods of characterization), I make sure students understand why I am using a mnemonic and how that device can aid them in retaining and recalling information. Research has shown that when struggling students are taught strategies and are given plenty of encouragement and feedback, along with opportunities to use those strategies, the students improve in their ability to process information, which, in turn, leads to improved learning 1 7. The way to provide strategy instruction in the classroom is to introduce or describe the strategy, model its use, provide enough practice time, promote self-monitoring and/or evaluation of the strategy, and encourage continued use of the strategy.
One type of strategy that I employ often in my teaching is the use of mnemonic devices. A mnemonic device is a strategy used to remember and recall information. Research has shown that interventions using mnemonic instruction have produced some of the largest instructional gains recorded in special education literature 1 7. There are several different types of mnemonic devices, including acronyms, acrostics, grouping, method of loci and illustration or symbolic devices. It is important to choose the right type of mnemonic for the activity, as the student must be able to clearly see the connection between the mnemonic device and the information to which it is being connected. Any student who has had me before has received my "Mnemonics are awesome" instruction, but I give the same lesson to each of my classes every semester, every year. In some cases, I provide the mnemonic; in others I work with the students to develop appropriate mnemonics; in still others, I allow the students to create their own mnemonic devices.
In this unit, I will use the acronym STEAL in order to review the methods of indirect characterization: S - speech; T - thoughts; E - effect on others; A - actions; L - looks. The students should have learned the ways that characters are developed in their prior English classes, so this is really just a review to activate prior knowledge. However, the instruction will be linked with the introduction of a mnemonic as well as a lesson on how to use mnemonics to aid in retaining and recalling information. Other strategy instruction I will embed in my teaching will be focused on reading comprehension. Students with disabilities typically have very poor reading comprehension skills. I will introduce and use a variety of reading comprehension strategies in order to aid in comprehension of Macbeth.
Reading Comprehension Strategies
- Metacognition / Comprehension Monitoring - Metacognition, as I said before, is thinking about thinking. Metacognitive strategies will include those that students must activate on their own - monitoring comprehension, being aware of what they do and do not understand, identifying where and what the difficulty is (ex: Act III, scene ii, line 14: I don't understand what John is saying); restating in their own words; and looking both backward and forward in the text. One of the ways I will help with metacognition and comprehension monitoring within this unit will be to provide post-it pads on which the students will write questions about the text, the plot, and/or the vocabulary.
- Graphic Organizers - can be used to help illustrate concepts or relationships, as well as keep track of important information. I will provide graphic organizers for the speeches presented in the beginning of the unit, during each act in the play in order to maintain continued understanding of the plot and who's who, and for various other reasons throughout the unit.
- Reciprocal Reading - requires that teachers provide explicit instruction in how to understand a text. There are four parts to the strategy: Questioning, Summarizing, Clarifying, and Predicting. First, a student assumes the role of "teacher." In the Questioning part of the activity, the "teacher" student reads aloud part of the text as group members follow along. The group then develops questions that focus on main ideas. In Summarizing, the "teacher" answers and summarizes the text. In Clarifying, the group discusses and clarifies remaining difficulties in understanding. In Predicting, the group then makes a prediction about future developments. The role of teacher is then passed on to another student. This activity can be done in groups, or as whole class, where the actual teacher leads. An additional component can be to have a worksheet on which each section is labeled with space to fill in questions, information, etc.
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