The Art of Biography

Background/Content

American history is longer, larger, more various, more beautiful, and more terrible than anything anyone has ever said about it. ¹⁰

When the Revolution started, the American colonies had a population of about two and a half million people, one fifth of whom were black, mostly slaves. The courage and bravery demonstrated by African Americans during the Revolution influenced legal decisions in the northern states to abolish slavery, leading to freedom for about 60,000 slaves. Yet for the most part, acts of heroism and the contributions of African Americans during the Revolution either went unrecorded or was not widely publicized. ¹¹

In 1776 Congress allowed the recruitment of free blacks and within a year shortages of soldiers encouraged the Patriots to accept blacks in large numbers into the military. The majority of black Patriot troops came from Northern states. But even states such as South Carolina and Georgia that prohibited the enlistment of blacks, used them as auxiliaries. Possibly 5,000 of the 30,000 Patriot troops were black. General Washington accommodated, if not exactly encouraged, the recruitment of free blacks when, on Jan. 12 ^th 1777, he instructed that recruiter enlist none but freemen. He conspicuously failed to mention race. Connecticut passed an act that allowed for the exemption of any two men who could provide a substitute, no matter his color. They also soon passed a second act that allowed masters to provide their slaves as substitutes, as long as the slave was granted his freedom. Rhode Island was the first state to pass a slave enlistment act, and in 1778 the First Rhode Island Regiment was formed and over the next five years 250 former slaves and freeman served within its ranks. They were the only all-black American unit at the siege at Yorktown, (See: The Yorktown Chronicles; http://historyisfun.org/yorktown-chronicles/films/siege-of-yorktown.htm), and formed an important part of Major General Benjamin Lincoln's division. ¹²

Many African Americans also served on warships or on private vessels. The Continental Navy, unlike the army, recruited blacks, both free and enslaved, from the beginning of the Revolutionary war. This was partly due to their need for sailors of any race, but also that many African Americans were experienced, having worked on merchant ships or by serving in the British and state navies. As many as a quarter of the slaves who escaped to the British ended up on ships. African Americans on both sides served as pilots, carpenters, laborers, and also often performed a range of menial duties. ¹³

It was with these menial labors that most African Americans involved in the war were employed. Patriots were uneasy with the notion of arming slaves, and even the British often used African Americans as a means of liberating other white soldiers for combat. In actuality, the majority of African Americans who participated in the Revolution helped behind the lines instead of fighting. When blacks were incorporated into the British army, the loyalists often maintained a racialized structure and made limited use of the troops in combat. Several hundred of Cornwallis's black troops served as body servants or were employed in other servile capacities. At Petersburg, Cornwallis issued regulations that allowed each field officer to keep two black servants and other officers were allowed to keep one. Soldiers also disobeyed orders and had black servants. Blacks were thought to have a better tolerance for heat and were often assigned the heavy labor when the weather was considered too disagreeable for the white troops. ¹⁴

There were also many complaints that the British army in particular did not provide adequate food, clothing, or medicine for their slave and free black populations. The death rate from disease was conspicuously higher among black troops than white. Overcrowding just intensified the problem. Smallpox ravaged the troops and hundreds and maybe thousands of blacks died from the disease. Patriots commented that the British would turn out the sick black soldiers so that they had to fend for themselves or hope to find help among the patriots, which was usually lacking. African Americans saw hope in the armies for their independence, but they weren't completely blind to the realities of service. ¹⁵

When I was a student, history books were chock-full with heroic stories of Washington, Revere, and Adams, but never of people of color. Textbooks have gotten better since I was a student; however they still lack the authentic content I believe my students sorely want and need. So now I ask: "What about Freeman, Lafayette, and Salem?"

While researching this unit, I found books that celebrate the lesser known but significant lives and contributions of African Americans in our nation's early history. I want to share that with my students. Many now know about the Revolutionary War's first martyr, Crispus Attucks, a dockworker of African descent, was killed at the Boston Massacre, but far fewer know about Jordan Freeman at the Battle of Groton Heights, Connecticut, September 6, 1781. Freeman, fighting alongside his former master, Colonel William Ledyard, threw a spear that killed British Major William Montgomery. ¹⁶

Plaque dedicated to Jordan Freeman At the Battle of Groton Heights Fort Griswold, Connecticut, September 6, 1781 ¹⁷

In this unit, students will read the books Jordan Freeman Was My Friend by Richard White, Black Heroes of the American Revolution by Burke Davis, and Almost Invisible: Black Patriots of the American Revolution by Kate Salley Palmer. These books will serve to introduce students to African American participants and heroes of the American Revolution. They are level appropriate for 5 ^th graders, are contextually interesting, and include supporting images and illustrations that will enable students of varied reading abilities to glean both information and enjoyment.

In the historical novel, published in 1994, Jordan Freeman Was My Friend by Richard White we learn about the massacre at Groton, Conn., in 1781, when Benedict Arnold's troops decimated the Revolutionary militia. Most of the characters are based on real people, and the language and background details are rendered with spare authenticity. The tale is narrated by a twelve-year-old Billy Latham. Billy first describes his hardworking but happy boyhood and his friendship with freed slave Jordan Freeman, who comes into Billy's life when he saves the boy from a marauding bull. Freeman is a hired man to Colonel William Ledyard, who commands the troops who are building Fort Griswold. Billy becomes a water boy at the fort; as a witness to the massacre, he sees the men, including Jordan and his Indian friend Tom Wansuc, fight bravely, with tragic outcomes for most. The language is deliberately simple and the morals spelled out plainly: bigotry is evil; loyalty to family, friends and country is the highest virtue. ¹⁸

I chose Almost Invisible: Black Patriots of the American Revolution by Kate Salley Palmer, published in 2008, because it is a well-researched book with exciting scenes of valor in battle and is a reminder that even the most 'invisible' person can be a hero. It has lively illustrations and narrative that illuminates the contributions of the African American patriots who fought in George Washington's Continental Army and also highlights the service of more than two dozen black patriots, including Tobias Gilmore, an African prince who regained his freedom by joining the Army and later became one of Washington's bodyguards. Like William Cooper Nell, Palmer ends this book with a quote from Harriet Beecher Stowe, who said black patriots exhibited bravery 'of a peculiar beauty and merit' because they fought for a nation which did not acknowledge them as citizens and equals.' ¹⁹

In a very readable style and ideal for 5 ^th grade, published in 1976, Davis's Black Heroes of the American Revolution relates the stories of a few of the approximately 5,000 black soldiers who participated in the Revolution, emphasizing their unselfishness fighting a war from which few would substantially benefit. Readers will discoverEdward Hector, the brave wagoner of Brandywine; artilleryman and slave Austin Dabney; William Lee, the aide and closest companion of George Washington throughout the war; and many others that will be mentioned within this unit. ²⁰

I also chose these books to reference and read aloud in class; America's Black Founders, Revolutionary Heroes & Early Leaders with 21 Activities by Nancy I. Sanders, African Americans in the Revolutionary War by Michael Lee Lanning, and Colored Patriots of the American Revolution by William Cooper Nell, all of which will further highlight the African American experience during the time of the American Revolution.

America's Black Founders, Revolutionary Heroes & Early Leaders with 21 Activities by Nancy Sanders, published in 2008, celebrates the lesser known but significant lives and contributions of our nation's early African American leaders. Many know that the Revolutionary War's first martyr, Crispus Attucks, a dockworker of African descent, was killed at the Boston Massacre. But far fewer know that the final conflict of the war, the Battle of Yorktown, was hastened to a conclusion by James Armistead Lafayette, a slave and spy who reported the battle plans of General Cornwallis to George Washington. Sanders weaves the histories of dozens of men and women, soldiers, sailors, ministers, poets, merchants, doctors, and other community leaders, who have earned proper recognition among the founders of the United States of America. To get a better sense of what these individuals accomplished and the times in which they lived, readers will celebrate Constitution Day, cook colonial foods, publish a newspaper, petition their government, and more. This valuable resource also includes a time line of significant events, a list of historic sites to visit or explore online, and Web resources for further study. ²¹

In African Americans in the Revolutionary War, Citadel Press, 2005, military historian Michael Lee Lanning reveals the little-known, critical, and heroic role African Americans played in the American Revolution, serving in integrated units; a situation that wouldn't exist again until the Korean War, more than 150 years later. In the words of the author, "The daily life of black soldiers, sailors, and marines in the Revolution differed little from that of their white comrades. Though prejudice and discrimination did not evaporate with the first shots at Lexington, black servicemen in the Revolution certainly experienced a marked increase in equality throughout the war. Ultimately, as in every armed conflict, soldiers in trenches and sailors and marines in the forecastle judged men by their performance rather than by the color of their skin as they fought for their country's liberty, their unit's pride, and their mutual survival." ²²

In Colored Patriots of the American Revolution, Nell has documented the African American heroes and patriots who fought during the Revolutionary War, many of which, who have been forgotten by historians and writers. He identifies many black soldiers; Henry Hill, a veteran of numerous battles, including Lexington, Princeton, and Yorktown; Peter Salem, Titus Coburn, Alexander Ames, Barzilai Lew, Cato Howe, Seymour Burr, Jeremy Jonah and numerous others. In addition to identifying and discussing many of these individuals and the events in which they participated, he often narrates subsequent historical events and or issues in which they were the subject. His work is impressive not only for its wide-ranging scope but for its rich and thorough documentation. Information was obtained from such repositories as the Massachusetts state house archives, the Massachusetts Historical Society, and the Suffolk County Probate Records Office, inscriptions from graveyards in Middletown, Connecticut, North Attleboro and Concord, Massachusetts, as well as the Massachusetts State House, Federal Records, Newspapers throughout the United States, and many other publications. In addition to these sources, he also relied upon the memories, accounts, and writings of individuals, as well as other institutional records. This book is also organized by state, which is especially helpful in 5 ^th grade, and will provide narrative for map making of the thirteen colonies. ²³ In honor of his amazing book first published in 1855, in certain copies, but not all, Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote the following introduction:

THE colored race has been generally considered by their enemies, and sometimes even by their friends, as deficient in energy and courage. Their virtues have been supposed to be principally negative ones. This little collection of interesting incidents, made by a colored man, will redeem the character of the race from this misconception, and show how much injustice there may often be in a generally admitted idea.

In considering the services of the Colored Patriots of the Revolution, we are to reflect upon them as far more magnanimous, because rendered to a nation which did not acknowledge them as citizens and equals, and in whose interests and prosperity they had less at stake. It was not for their own land they fought, not even for a land which had adopted them, but for a land which had enslaved them, and whose laws, even in freedom, oftener oppressed than protected. Bravery, under such circumstances, has a peculiar beauty and merit. ²⁴

In addition to these books, I also plan to use historical fiction novels /fictional biographies from the Scholastic series, Dear America, from a girl's point of view, and My Name is America, from a boy's perspective, to enrich my Social Studies thematic units on colonial life and the Revolutionary War. I chose books from both of these series because they are very "kid" friendly to read. They are written in first person narratives, in the style of journaling, from a child's point of view ranging from the sixteenth century up until the 1960's. For the purpose of my unit, I whittled the list down to just those that center on colonial life and the American Revolution. I will use them for literacy circles and SSR, (silent sustained reading). Students genuinely enjoy these books because they include very realistic and real photos and illustrations of the time throughout which I find helps students stay engaged. ²⁵