Content Objectives
While reading Frankenstein, my students conduct research into specific topics that relate to the novel including the search for the Northwest Passage, scientific discovery, and Romantic literature. The study of maps incorporates additional geographical, historical, and artistic context. Looking closely at several maps of the same area across time encourages observation, inferencing, and critical thinking. This section outlines the content students will learn through their research, supplemented with background information for teachers.
Arctic Exploration
European Explorers
Several Shelley scholars have tried to identify the real explorers that inspire the character of Robert Walton, the English mariner who encounters first Victor Frankenstein and later the monster, and whose letters to his sister frame the main plot. Cavell proposes that Shelley drew from William Scoresby’s 1815 expedition to the North Pole, among other sources. Like Victor and the monster, Scoresby utilized a sledge drawn by dogs rather than the more conventional choice of a ship. Scoresby shared his experiences through lectures that Mary Shelley could have read about or attended.6 It is less important that students know the details of Scoresby’s mission, and more essential that they understand what groups of people were exploring the Arctic, what their motivations were, and what factors made Arctic exploration difficult.
European exploration in the Arctic was initially motivated by the search for the Northwest Passage. England showcased and preserved its military, economic, and scientific dominance through control of Arctic waterways. Their main competition was Russia, but other European countries like Norway launched expeditions as well.7 Some dangers specific to polar exploration include magnetic disturbances that interfered with navigation, fog that reduced visibility, and ice that prevented sailing.8 By using the dogsled, Scoresby was able to travel further than other European explorers at his time and avoid the peril of having his ship stuck in ice, which happens to Walton and his crew in the novel.9 Although Cavell maintains that the 1818 version of Frankenstein uses the Arctic frame narrative for aesthetics rather than as political or social critique,10 others disagree.
One such critic is Scobie, who traces Shelley’s possible influences to Arctic explorations in 1779 by James King and even earlier expeditions by James Cook in the Pacific. Contrasting Cavell’s focus on the character of Robert Walton, Scobie zeroes in on the monster as an example of European efforts to categorize, exploit, and dominate. While the monster hides near the DeLacey cottage observing the family, Scobie notes his use of scientific language like “observe,” “collect,” “discover,” and “conjecture.” The monster is studying the family in an anthropological way, the way European explorers scrutinized unfamiliar peoples. The monster hopes that his studies will ingratiate him into the family, similar to how explorers hoped their voyages would further their own and their countries’ interests. She sees a parallel between the monster’s desire to force humans into friendship, and his resorting to violence when his efforts fail, and Cook’s account of his first trip to New Zealand. On this voyage, Cook’s account describes waylaying Maori fishermen, attempting to woo them with gifts, and finally killing or capturing them when they resist. In both instances, the offer of friendship is contingent on the interloper (the monster or Cook) extracting something useful out of the interaction. Scobie compares the monster’s theft of a sledge and dogs from terrified Arctic villagers with the actions of Arctic explorer James King. King was so fascinated with Arctic sledges that he went so far as to bring one back to London for a museum display, without explaining how he acquired it. For Scobie, the creature’s actions paint European explorers as monstrous.11
Indigenous Ingenuity
Although Scobie’s connections to King and Cook are relevant context for teachers, a more salient point for students is that Indigenous people also played important roles in Arctic exploration. Given my students’ demographics, I want to highlight the expertise that indigenous people displayed in navigating the Arctic and the impact that Arctic exploration had on those peoples and their environment. According to the Denali Education Center, Robert Peary’s successful Arctic journey in the early 1900s can be partially attributed to his use of Native guides with local knowledge, dogsleds, and parkas.12 The Arctic Portal website supplies more detail on the ways in which Indigenous peoples and their technology such as kayaks, umiaks, and snow goggles assisted European explorers.13 Unfortunately, the impact on these peoples and their environment displays some similarities to King’s and Cook’s (and the monster’s) exploitation.
Science vs. Nature
Like Scobie, other scholars see a strong critique of 18th and 19th century voyages of discovery in Frankenstein, but they focus more on scientific endeavors than geographical study. These scholars surface a key tension in the novel between nature and scientific discovery. This tension was playing out during the age of exploration too, particularly in the 19th century with its elevation of the heroic, lone explorer who uses technology to precisely and accurately penetrate unknown regions of the world.14 Shelley’s conception of nature in the novel reflects the understanding of her times, but the book seems to be ahead of its time in other ways. On one hand, nature is depicted in the novel as passive and indifferent, and both Walton and Victor Frankenstein try to exploit it for their own glory and fame.15 Walton expresses his curiosity about studying magnetism and setting foot on virgin soil, but on the next page he admits that he would rather pursue his thirst for glory than live a comfortable, affluent life.16 While laboring on his creation, Victor believes a new species will worship and be grateful to him.17 The desire to understand nature through scientific research is viewed in the novel as neither inherently good nor bad, but when Victor uses his scientific knowledge to defy nature and death itself, he is punished severely. However, the novel anticipates modern literature’s examination of the destructive impact of humans on nature. Access to the Arctic’s resources and increasingly open waterways is still highly sought-after, and that increased shipping traffic brings greater risks of pollution, invasive species, and damage to wildlife.18 Through the Arctic frame, students see how scientific advancement and exploration produce different outcomes for different groups.
Maps of Place
GIS Story Map
In addition to this historical context, it is instructive for students to understand the geographical and artistic context in which Frankenstein was created. Visuals like maps and artwork are valuable resources. At University of Maryland, Burke and Herron used GIS software to create an extensive and detailed story map for Frankenstein.19 According to the National Geographic Society, “A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer system for capturing, storing, checking, and displaying data related to positions on Earth’s surface.” GIS is handy for researchers across multiple disciplines because it allows us to understand spatial relationships as well as other factors like population, pollution, or resources.20 This particular story map pairs locations in the novel and with roughly contemporaneous paintings and maps of the same locations. Viewing the GIS story map alongside the novel helps students visualize the characters’ travels consider how these locations would have been represented artistically and cartographically in the late 1700s and early 1800s.
Along with the GIS story map, historical maps of the North Pole prompt students to reflect on how maps represent knowledge at a given point in time. By examining maps from before, during, and after the time period in which Shelley was writing, students reflect upon three essential questions in mapping: Who is the map for? What is it used for? What are its drawbacks?
Herman Moll’s A Map of the North Pole, ca. 1736
One early map for students to examine is Herman Moll’s A map of the North Pole: with all the territories that lye near it, known to us &: according to the latest discoveries, and most exact observations: agreeable to modern history from approximately 1736 (Figure 1).21 Moll was a British geographer who published this map as part of an atlas of 62 maps for the booksellers Thomas and John Bowles in London. Students should note the publication location and the fact that the text on the map is in English and infer that this map was intended for a British audience. Additional supporting evidence is that the prime meridian is centered on the map and labeled, “The First Meridian from London.” Another aspect I want students to pay attention to is the map’s title, which emphasizes its completeness (“all the territories that lye near it”), its currency (“according to the latest discoveries”), and scientific accuracy (“most exact observations”). All of these descriptions point to the map being marketed to a well-educated audience who is hungry for the most up-to-date information on the far reaches of the globe.
In spite of Moll’s best efforts to present his readers with the most complete and precise information available, there are some noticeable drawbacks to the map that students should note. The northernmost section of the map is labeled “Parts Unknown,” and the northern coast of Russia is labeled “Unknown Coast.” Moll imaginatively draws mountains in this area, speculating on what the landscape might look like. In an explanatory note in the bottom-right corner, Moll comments that several attempts have been made to reach the North Pole, but they have been unsuccessful due to “the extremity of cold, and the vast Mountains of Ice.” Moll highlights specific attempts by Martin Frobisher and John Davies, acknowledging that they made important discoveries even if they did not attain their goals. Locations and dates of other expeditions are labeled on the map itself. For example, a dot on Nova Zembla marks the spot where, “the Hollanders wintered.” This is a reference to Dutch explorers Willem Barents and Jacob van Heemskerck who got stuck on the island in 1596 while searching for the Northwest Passage.22 Another point near the island of Spitsbergen marks the location where “the English wintered in 1630.” This refers to the first recorded wintering on the island, which is now called Svalbard, by eight English whalers.23 Overall, the text and labels convey the idea of scientific and geographic progress. Although in Moll’s time Europeans’ knowledge about the North Pole was incomplete, Moll’s emphasis on the advancements of different expeditions implies that more fantastic discoveries are just over the horizon.
Fig. 1: Herman Moll’s A map of the North Pole: with all the territories that lye near it, known to us & according to the latest discoveries, and most exact observations, agreeable to modern history, ca. 1736
Matthew Carey’s A map of the countries situated about the North Pole, 1818
A map from 1818, the year of Frankenstein’s original publication, provides a different perspective. Matthew Carey’s A map of the countries situated about the North Pole as far as the 50th degree of north latitude (Figure 2) was published in Philadelphia as part of the third edition of his atlas.24 The first thing students may observe about this map is its use of color: the borders of North America, Greenland, and Iceland are outlined in pink, and the borders of Europe and Asia are outlined in yellow. This highlights the contrast between the “old” world and the “new” world. The physical features of North America are far more detailed here than they are on Moll’s map, and the map is oriented towards Philadelphia rather than London. The Greenwich longitude was not accepted as the global prime meridian until 1884, and then only by 26 countries,25 so this would have been a legitimate choice for Carey to make at the time. I would not expect students to know this context, but they should notice that this map is oriented differently from Moll’s and the teacher can clarify the reason for that choice. Knowing that the map is centered on Philadelphia, students should be able to infer that the intended users of this map were primarily Americans. Students might note that Russia’s northern coast is outlined more clearly than in Moll’s map, and an additional landmass not present on the earlier map is featured here, labeled as “A Shore [discovered] by Hunters.”
Notwithstanding these new details, the map has some major drawbacks. Students may observe that it is less detailed in its depiction of Europe and Asia, and it does not have the same information about polar explorations that Moll includes. Carey does not label any expeditions on the Eurasian side of the map, but he does call out two on the North American side. On the northern border of Canada, Carey marks, “The Sea Seen by Mr. Hearne 1771” and “The Sea Seen by Mr. Mackenzie 1789.” Hearne’s route is also marked on the map. It is significant to note that both expeditions were commercially funded rather than incited by the government. The Hudson’s Bay Company employed Hearne to locate copper mines and a route from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific.26 Mackenzie also searched for the Northwest Passage on behalf of the North West Company, of which he was a partner.27 The fact that Carey calls attention to these financial ventures hints at a potential use of this map: to garner more fiscal support for polar exploration. Even if it was not created with that purpose in mind, this map could be used as evidence in an argument for the lucrative potential of further exploration in the Arctic. Students would likely not come to this conclusion on their own; they may need prompting to get there.
Fig. 2: Matthew Carey’s A map of the countries situated about the North Pole as far as the 50th degree of north latitude, 1818.
Stanford’s map of the countries round the North Pole, 1875
Finally, Edward Stanford’s 1875 map entitled, Stanford's map of the countries round the North Pole (Figure 3) combines the best and worst of both previous maps.28 This map is highly detailed and precise, with the prime meridian running through London as would become more widely accepted in the next decade. Students should observe that the northern coastlines of North America, Europe, and Asia are all depicted with attention paid to towns, rivers, bays, and other geographic features. Countries are differentiated by color, and a wider variety of countries are represented than in the previous maps. Of the three maps in the set, this one would be considered the most scientific and accurate, and thus the most useful for navigation. Although students may notice a central expanse labeled “Unexplored Polar Region,” this map includes a wealth of information about explorers and their achievements. The locations reached by dozens of expeditions are marked in red, with the names and dates associated with them. As Stanford points out in an explanatory note in the bottom-left corner of the map, “The names of the chief ‘Arctic Worthies’ and the dates of discovery are marked in red.” Here, it would be useful to ask students about the effect of the labeled expeditions and the explanatory note. They should conclude that by calling attention to these notable figures, the map glorifies their exploits. Readers of Frankenstein can imagine Walton hoping his own name would be included with the “Arctic Worthies” shown on this type of map. Its purpose seems to be twofold: to display the most accurate and complete information available to date about the Arctic, and to inspire readers to take up Arctic exploration for themselves, either literally or imaginatively by studying the map. This map also reflects the increased attention on the Arctic region throughout the 19th century by the sheer number of expeditions included.
Fig. 3: Edward Stanford’s Stanford's map of the countries round the North Pole, 1875.
Maps of Relationship
A persistent challenge my students experience when reading Frankenstein is keeping track of the characters. Victor’s relatives are skimmed in chapter 1, and then rarely mentioned until after he creates the monster and it begins killing them. Previously, I have shown students a family tree diagram to keep Victor’s relatives and friends straight, but I realized that this put more of the cognitive load on me and less on my students. By the end of this unit, students need to be able to organize their own maps to track information from their reading. A partially completed family tree serves as a scaffolded step on the way towards more independent concept mapping.
In the 1818 text, Victor’s father, a Genovese aristocrat, and mother, the noble yet impoverished Caroline Beaufort are introduced29. Readers learn Victor’s father’s first name, Alphonse, in chapter 6.30 Caroline’s father, a friend of Alphonse, falls on hard times and dies, leaving Caroline alone but for Alphonse’s protection. In what modern readers may consider predatory behavior, the much older Alphonse arranges to bring her to Geneva with him and marries her two years later. Victor is their firstborn child, followed by Ernest and William.31
When Elizabeth, Victor’s cousin is introduced, my students lose their minds. In the 1831 version of the novel, Elizabeth is a stranger adopted by Victor’s parents and therefore is not biologically related. However, in Shelley’s 1818 version, she is Victor’s first cousin, the daughter of Victor’s paternal aunt and “an Italian gentleman” named Lavenza.32 This change surfaces a useful, if awkward, conversation point in the classroom, as we discuss why Shelley pruned Elizabeth off the Frankenstein family tree in the later edition. Shelley’s reasoning becomes obvious in chapter 2, where Caroline expresses a deathbed wish for Victor to marry his cousin/adopted sister.33 Also introduced in chapter 1 is Victor’s childhood friend Henry Clerval,34 who reappears later as a balm for Victor’s frayed nerves and as an eventual victim of the monster. Conspicuously absent from the narrative until chapter 5 is Justine Moritz, who is introduced in a letter from Elizabeth to Victor.35 Justine becomes a convenient scapegoat for the murder of William, Victor’s youngest brother. Although Victor’s monster is the real culprit, Justine takes the fall and is executed after giving a false confession.36 Justine and Henry may not be family per se, but their deaths drive the plot, so they are important to include in a character map.
These relationships are a lot for students to track, so in order to give them a visual representation of the connections among these characters, I provide a family tree diagram similar to the ones given to group two of the Wang and Dwyer study discussed in the Background and Rationale section. Given propositions (family relationships), students fill in the content (characters) on their own as they read. They add notes on each character’s personality traits and eventual deaths along with locations of supporting textual evidence in the novel. This visual reference assists students in their writing about the plot of the novel later in the unit, because the relationships clarify the motivations for the characters’ decisions. Victor’s refusal to create a mate for the monster occurs in part because the monster has already strangled William, and Victor fears that creating another monster will do even greater damage to the world.37 Enraged, the monster then murders Henry Clerval and Elizabeth, and Alphonse dies shocked and brokenhearted soon after.38 Mapping these relationships illuminates for students why Victor pursues the monster to his own death at the end of the book.
In order to find a structure to use as a model for the character map, I examined several examples of historical family trees. An instructive resource is Graham’s Genealogical and historical diagrams: illustrative of the history of Scotland, England, France and Germany, from the ninth century to the present time.39 These diagrams are simple and clean, with earlier generations positioned near the top of the page and each successive generation below. Siblings are on the same line, and notes beneath each person indicate the years of their birth and death as well as biographical details (Figure 4). For students, I provide the structure and relationships and have them fill in the characters and biographical details.
Fig. 4: Genealogical and Historical Map of England, No. 3. From William Graham’s Genealogical and historical diagrams: illustrative of the history of Scotland, England, France and Germany, from the ninth century to the present time, 1862.
Maps of Emotion
In addition to the Frankenstein family dynamics, my students also struggle to identify and explain how mood is created in the text. This unit leverages artwork included in the University of Maryland GIS story map as well as a painting from the Yale Center for British Art to help students understand how setting contributes to mood in the novel.
Several of the artworks paired with locations in the University of Maryland GIS story map are by J.M.W. Turner, a British artist working in the Romantic style. According to the Tate Museum in London, Romanticism is characterized by an interest in human psychology, expression of personal feelings, and the natural world.40 The connection between Turner’s painting style and Shelley’s writing style is apparent: Shelley dives deeply into the psychology of both Victor and the monster, explores their emotions, and describes sublime natural landscapes that invoke both awe and fear. According to Tate, in the artistic context the sublime refers to art that is almost beyond human comprehension and that taps into our strongest emotions to the point of causing terror.41 Turner’s work, similarly, emphasizes natural features such as sea and sky and provokes an emotional response in the viewer rather than aiming for a precise and realistic depiction of the scenery. A perfect example of this type of work is Turner’s Mer de Glace, in the Valley of Chamonix, which is not featured in the GIS map but which is in the Yale Center for British Art (Figure 5).42 Painted around 1815, this artwork emphasizes the dramatic beauty of the glacier and the mountains, while also acknowledging its danger. Teachers should prompt students to consider how the scale of the mountains and glacier dwarf the tiny human figure, emphasizing how easily he can be crushed in an avalanche or rock fall. The blasted trees and the snake in the foreground show the immense risk that humans take in order to reap the reward of the spectacular view.
It is no accident that Shelley sets a key moment of Frankenstein in the same location. In the novel, Victor Frankenstein travels to Chamounix with his family to try to get over the deaths of his youngest brother William and Justine Moritz. While on a solo hike, Victor is confronted by the monster.43 In Cavell’s reading, this moment is significant for Victor because it forces him to face the consequences of his actions: by creating the monster that killed his brother, he is complicit in his brother’s death.44 However, it is also a significant moment for readers because this is the point at which the monster takes over the narrative and begins to tell his own story. Up to this point, students believe, based on Victor’s impressions of the monster their own experiences with pop culture interpretations of the Frankenstein story, that the monster is some kind of inarticulate proto-human, capable of only violence and grunting. In this conversation between the monster and his creator, readers see that the monster is well-spoken, educated, and highly sympathetic. A useful question to pose to students here is, “How has your thinking about the monster changed?” Much like Turner’s painting, Shelley’s writing weds a deeply fraught and frightening moment to a transcendent yet treacherous landscape. Pairing the GIS location with an artistic rendering of the same place affords an excellent jumping-off point for discussions of mood and tone so students see Shelley’s work as part of a larger literary and artistic movement.
Fig. 5: J.M.W. Turner’s Mer de Glace, in the Valley of Chamonix, ca. 1815.
When teaching mood and tone in literature, my goal is to get students to understand that mood is the feeling the author creates in the readers, while tone is the author or narrator’s attitude toward their subject. This is a tricky concept for students to grasp. When I ask students to write a paragraph explaining how descriptions of the setting create mood in the passage, students are often off the mark in a few predictable ways. Some of them identify descriptions of the monster instead of descriptions of the setting. These students may have an incomplete understanding of the term “setting” or a careless habit of not closely reading the prompt. Another way students tend to get off track here is when they correctly identify textual evidence that could show mood, but err in their explanations or interpretations of the evidence. For example, students might claim that the rainfall in chapter 4 makes Victor feel gloomy, when in actuality he is energized by his success at reanimating dead matter. Or, they might correctly identify that the rain creates a foreboding mood but offer no reasoning to explain how it has that effect on readers. To address these problems, I use a few different teaching strategies and classroom activities to help students visualize mood in the text.
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