Asian American History and the Making of the U.S. Immigration System

Content Objectives:

In this curriculum, “Voice of Arrival: Asian American Stories in California”, ELD students will learn about California’s Asian American immigration history. They will analyze key policies and landmark cases shaping today’s immigration system. To build foundational knowledge, students will compare and contrast critical events of Asian Exclusion (1875-1943) with the present day. Students will also examine the experiences of different Asian ethnic groups and the legacies of exclusion. In parallel, students will discover that community groups came together to advocate for the newcomers. As the unit unfolds, students will gain an understanding of the nuances among the 1st-, 1.5-, and 2nd-generation by reading excerpts from narratives, graphic novels, and poems. Subsequently, they will become introspective when comparing the experiences of immigrants they read about in class to their own 1.5-generation experience. By the end of the unit, students will grapple with materials that affirm their right to a bilingual education. Through targeted vocabulary instruction, sentence frames, word banks, think-pair-share activities, graphic organizers, and the use of visuals, students will build the English skills to write and present their California arrival poem to all their peers, regardless of cultural backgrounds.

The unit begins with targeted vocabulary instruction related to immigration and the experiences surrounding arrival. First and foremost, it is important to frontload or preteach vocabulary because the students will need to know these key words for reading comprehension and for all forms of communication. The academic vocabulary will set the stage for learning about the unit topics, and the vocabulary knowledge will empower the students to communicate their ideas within the classroom community. In addition, it will also serve to build background knowledge about the historical context where students will begin making connections to the material.

Mapping the Journey

Maps are crucial to learning history as students can visualize historical narratives and the long journeys across the terrain, oftentimes unforgiving. Immigrants may have had the choice to embark on these long journeys, or they may have had no alternatives. Students will have a working framework of the local demographics shaping California during the Asian Exclusion Era (1875-1943), a period of time in the history of the United States defined by federal legislation and government policies aimed at restricting and prohibiting immigration from Asia. The U.S. naturalization laws beginning with the 1790 Rule of Naturalization denied them a pathway to U.S. citizenship. In the present day (post-1965), students will look at landmark federal legislation that transformed the U.S. immigration policy and demographics. Students will see that each time period had its own set of challenges.

Students will view a traditional geographic map of the United States from 1959 (see fig. 1). This map illustrates that the United States is a nation of immigrants, through geographic boundaries established by the Immigration Act of 1917. Looking more closely at a 2023 interactive map of California (see fig. 2), it highlights the struggles of different immigrant groups and the cities in which they lived, raising a central question: how did we get here? To explore this question, students will turn to the National Geographic Society’s resource, 'Immigration to the U.S. in the Late 1800s,' to trace the immigration from China and Japan to California, and they will look at the immigration map in Angel Island: Immigrant Gateway to America. This will serve as a springboard into the creation of Angel Island Immigration Station in the San Francisco Bay (1910-1940).

Figure 1. Map showing the geographic boundaries established by the Immigration Act of 1917. Source: Daniela Passal, “The United States of America: A Nation of Immigrants” text panel, in A Nation of Immigrants (New York: Anti-Defamation League, 1959), courtesy of the David Rumsey Map Collection.

Figure 2. Connie Zheng, How to Make a Golden State, 2023, image transfer, ink, rice paper, and mixed media drawing, 154 × 295 cm (courtesy of the David Rumsey Historical Map Collection).

Angel Island opened in 1910 as an immigration processing center for immigrants coming to the United States from Asia. Immigrants packed up their belongings into modest possessions, such as a leather trunk (see fig. 3). Angel Island was established primarily to enforce the exclusion laws until its closure in 1940. Not only did the exclusion laws affect the Chinese and Japanese, but Filipinos (1934-1935), the Koreans (following the end of the Korean War in 1953), and the Vietnamese (following the end of the Vietnam War in 1975).

Figure 3. Kumataro Sugimoto, Japanese Immigrant’s Trunk, late 1800s, leather and paper, courtesy of the National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.

Asian Exclusion Era (1875-1943) versus Present Day (Post-1965)

To understand the Asian Exclusion era, students need to know key acts and court cases defining the time, starting with the 1875 Page Act, which focused on preventing immigration from China and other parts of “the Orient”. California Congressman Henry Page authored this act, becoming the country’s first restrictive immigration law. It is also the precedent for the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, the first significant federal legislation to explicitly suspend immigration for a specific nationality. This act banned Chinese laborers from entering the United States, barred current Chinese residents from naturalization, and subjected them to strict travel restrictions for ten years.[4]  The Geary Act (1892) extended the Chinese Exclusion Act for 10 more years and required all Chinese residents in the U.S. to carry a government-issued Certificate of Residence. If one was found without a Certificate of Residence, the individual faced up to a year of hard labor followed by deportation.[5] With each additional act, students will realize that immigration was further limited.

Two Supreme Court cases challenged the constitutionality of the Geary Act: Chan Chae Ping v. United States (1889) and Fong Yue Ting v. United States (1893). In Chan Chae Ping, the Supreme Court ruled that Congress has total, unchecked power over immigration, meaning Congress can create any immigration law it wants, even if it breaks past treaties. Likewise, the Supreme Court ruled against Fong Yue Ting, declaring that the U.S. government holds absolute, "sovereign" power over immigration and established deportation as an administrative process rather than a criminal punishment. As a result, constitutional protections, such as the right to a jury trial, do not apply to deportation proceedings. Both men were eventually deported.[6]

Following the initial exclusion laws, the U.S. government continued to enact a series of more restrictive policies aimed at barring immigrants across Asia. These legislative barriers included: Asiatic Barred Zone (1917), banning immigrants from British India, Southeast Asia, and the Middle East; The Johnston-Reed Act (1924), establishing a strict national origins quota system and effectively shutting down nearly all of the immigration from Asia; the Tydings-McDuffie Act (1934), creating a 10-year transition period for the Philippines to gain independence and severely restricted Filipino immigration to the U.S.; the Filipino Repatriation Act (1935) offering a free one-way passage to Filipinos in the U.S. who wanted to return to the Philippines. In exchange, Filipinos permanently lost their right to re-enter the U.S. Soon after, the Philippines became part of the Asiatic Barred Zone, which is what the exclusionists wanted from the outset.[7]

The perceptions and attitudes on immigration and race drastically shifted with the pressures of World War II and the Cold War. The first repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act reflected the alliance between the U.S. and China during WWII and made way for the post-exclusion era immigration policies as a result of changing international relations.[8] Lawmakers were adapting the immigration laws to the times and the momentum of the Civil Rights movement. The Immigration Act of 1965 abolished the discriminatory national-origins quota system that had governed U.S. immigration since the 1920s. It replaced the quotas with a preference system prioritizing family reunification and skilled laborers/professionals.[9] With an increased demand for the medical field, the Exchange Visitor Program (EVP) opened pathways for Filipino nurses and other healthcare professionals to come to the U.S. to work and live for up to two years; however, many stayed beyond the two years.[10]

With its hands in foreign policy and military involvement in Vietnam, the U.S fueled the refugee crisis. Following the fall of Saigon and the end of the Vietnam War, 1.5 million refugees had fled Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. The 1980 Refugee Assistance Act managed refugee resettlement, and it provided assistance to this vulnerable population. The act also incorporated the United Nations definition of a "refugee," established the U.S. Refugee Admissions Program (USRAP), and created the Office of Refugee Resettlement (ORR), which solidified the U.S. commitment to protecting the refugees, trying to make amends for past mistakes.[11]  

In the mid 1980s and 1990s, there were new policies aimed at controlling illegal immigration. The 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) made it illegal for employers to hire and recruit undocumented immigrants, while the Immigration Act of 1990 overhauled the preference systems by expanding quotas for family reunification, employment-based skills, and diversity visas, favoring Europeans.[12] Finally, the Immigration Act of 1996 strengthened U.S. immigration laws and added penalties for undocumented immigrants who reside in the country for defined periods of time and who commit crimes. It also sought to end mass immigration from Vietnam.[13] Today, the federal government is also trying to curb immigration.

Through an analysis of both time periods, students will recognize that the Asian exclusion was systematic and legalized: laws explicitly dictated who could enter the country, who was turned away, and who could own land. When drawing parallels and distinctions between the exclusion era and present-day immigration, post-1965, they will observe hardships and challenges faced by immigrants of the past and present, including but not limited to: being placed in detention centers, anticipating and preparing for interviews/interrogation using a coaching book (see fig. 4), being subjected to medical examinations, and forced separation from family. These are also concerns for the foreseeable future.

Figure 4. Photograph of the Choi Tsia coaching book, ca. 1937–1938, courtesy of the National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.

The U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) is prominent in San Jose and the Bay Area. There have been multiple walkouts at the school site and sites across the district. Despite the ordeals, immigrant communities rally together with advocacy groups in confronting the immigration apparatus in both the exclusion era and the present day. Community groups use their education and knowledge of the legal system to refute unfair rulings for the sake of human dignity.

1.5 Generation

Since my students belong to the 1.5- generation, born in one country and immigrated to another during childhood or adolescence, students will learn about what this label means- speaking more than one language and being caught in between two cultures. As part of the 1.5- generation, it is vital for students to successfully navigate between two different worlds- one that is their home and one that is their school. Adolescents living in bicultural worlds are best set up for success when they demonstrate positive American behaviors.[14]  

Using narratives written from the 1.5- generation perspective, students will explore in depth the lives of these individuals who spent some part of their childhood in their birth country and then, due to different circumstances, moved with their families to California. The students will come to reflect on the 1.5- generation label and consider its connections to their own experiences, living in multigenerational families.

Also, during this time of transition, home language loss can occur over generations, and currently, this need is not addressed in the American education system.[15] Students need opportunities to connect their home language and culture to the school environment. Upon reading about the experiences of other immigrant teens, students will have the understanding that others have walked a similar path; this experience is not isolated to the people of their birth country. When students and their native language are acknowledged in the classroom, this “connection to one’s personal language identity may play a central role in adjustment, social interaction, and a sense of belonging among Asian and Asian American immigrant young adults” now living in America.[16] This is the groundwork necessary for students to acquire the language and comfort that they need to share their arrival story.

Myth of the Model Minority

When engaging with the myth of the “model minority” for Asian Americans, students will learn the origin of this false concept. Following WWII, the U.S. used the EVP to bring a wave of highly educated Asian professionals and students to American universities and hospitals. This coincided with the Civil Rights movement, forcing the US to rethink its racially based immigration quotas. In direct response, Congress passed the Immigration Act of 1965, which abolished the national quotas and established new preference categories based on family reunification and skilled workers. This opened the door for scientists, engineers, and medical professionals in Asia, contributing to the idea of the “model minority”. The success of these specific immigrant groups was used to downplay the ongoing realities of systemic racism. It also masked the diverse, complex struggles within the broader Asian American community, a detriment to all.[17]

Students will discover the implications of this myth in their lives. This stereotype puts all Asians, regardless of immigration and national histories or class background, into a cookie-cutter image of being very intelligent, hardworking, and having money and wealth. It is assumed that my Asian students, compared to students who are not of Asian descent, are quiet, good at Math, and that they abide by school rules, always making good decisions. The model minority myth “is often applied to Asian Americans, who, as a group, are often praised for apparent success across academic, economic, and cultural domains—successes typically offered in contrast to the perceived achievements of other racial groups”.[18]

One group negatively impacted by this stereotype is the Latino youth. Stereotypes about Latino youth include: teen pregnancy is commonplace, and it will lead to lower educational levels.[19]

Students will grapple with these generalizations as they navigate new cultural norms, values, and “interdependent strategies for navigating in the United States.” [20]

Right to a Bilingual Education

Students will gain new insight into their right to a bilingual education by closely studying the U.S. Supreme Court case of Lau v. Nichols (1974). Chinese immigrant students in a San Francisco public school were placed in mainstream classes without English language support. These students were failing because they were subjected to the “sink or swim” mentality of learning. The Supreme Court ruled that merely providing students with the same facilities, textbooks, teachers, and curriculum does not constitute equal treatment if they cannot understand the language of instruction.[21]

With the inclusion of the immigrant student narratives, students will see that it is possible to break through the language barrier. They will read about others who have also struggled with the English language and who have found success in learning to speak and write in English. They need to remember that they have a voice and important ideas to share. Language is a means by which we communicate those ideas. They will notice that the immigrant teens in the selected excerpts make mistakes, but they are determined and relentless in their pursuit of acquiring this new language.

Developing Identities Through Narratives and Storytelling

Storytelling serves as a bridge for English Learners. Storytelling “is an accessible way to start their journey to language fluency, as anyone can be a storyteller. It resonates with those from immigrant families or cultures with rich traditions of oral storytelling, offering a connection to content and peers.”[22] As students transition from reading to writing, a student’s identity “often shifts from being the lone hero, overcoming adversity to succeed, to someone who is more critical of his or her literacy practices and who sees them more connected to relationships with others- either teachers or writing peers.”[23] Building on the relational shift, when students are listening to their classmates’ stories, they are strengthening “their political consciousness about other racial and religious groups” and share a sense of belonging.[24]

As the unit concludes, students will have the language framework to share an arrival memory through poetry written in English. We will be bridging the language gap in that safe space of the classroom. In this final culminating task, they can share their identity, learn about one another, find common ground across racial boundaries, and feel a sense of collective belonging.