Notes
[1] Mark H. Lai, Genny Lim, and Judy Yung, eds., Island: Poetry and History of Chinese Immigrants on Angel Island, 1910-1940. (University of Washington Press, 2014),
[2] Delaware Department of Education, “duPont (Pierre S.) Middle School Snapshot,” State Report Cards, September 30, 2025, https://reportcard.doe.k12.de.us/detail.html#aboutpage?scope=school&district=31&school=170.
[3] Pennee Bender, “Chinese Exclusion and Racial Gatekeeping in the United States,” Who Built America?, American Social History Project, https://www.whobuiltamerica.org/item/chinese-exclusion-and-racial-gatekeeping-in-the-united-states.
[4] Erika Lee and Judy Yung, Angel Island: Immigrant Gateway to America, (Oxford University Press, 2012), 6.
[5] Bender, under the heading “Chinese Immigrants Face Racism and Discrimination.”
[6] Lee and Yung, 6.
[7] Lee and Yung, 75.
[8] Heather Ruth Lee, “In Pursuit of Merchant Status: The Migration Strategy of Early Twentieth Chinese Restaurant Owners under Chinese Exclusion,” Organization of American Historians, https://www.oah.org/tah/food-history/in-pursuit-of-merchant-status/.
[9] Lee and Yung, 84.
[10] Judy Yung, “Jew Law Yin’s Coaching Book,” In Unbound Voices: A Documentary History of Chinese Women in San Francisco, (University of California Press, 1999), 32-35
[11]Kelly Lytle Hernández, “Not Imprisonment in a Legal Sense,” in City of Inmates: Conquest, Rebellion, and the Rise of Human Caging in Los Angeles, 1771-1965, (The University of North Carolina Press, 2017), 64.
[12] Lee and Yung, 113.
[13] Lee and Yung, 113.
[14] Mae M. Ngai, Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America, Politics and Society in Twentieth-Century America. (Princeton University Press, 2004), 37.
[15] Lee and Yung, 116.
[16] Lee and Yung, 115.
[17] Lee and Yung, 117.
[18] Lee and Yung, 132 and 173.
[19] Lee and Yung, 130 and 132.
[20] Lee and Yung, 132.
[21] Ngai, 27.
[22] Lee and Yung, 139.
[23] Amy Qin, “This Man Won Birthright Citizenship for All,” New York Times, February 10, 2025.
[24] Suchen Chan, “Introduction,” In Quiet Odyssey: A Pioneer Korean Woman in America, (University of Washington Press, 1990), xxxix-xl.
[25] Chan, xxviii.
[26] Chan, xxviii.
[27] Chan, xxviii-xxix.
[28] Chan, xxxi.
[29] Chan, xlix.
[30] Lee and Yung, 180.
[31] Chan, xlvii.
[32] Lee and Yung, 4 and 146.
[33] Lee and Yung, 49-50.
[34] Lee and Yung, 169.
[35] Ngai, 43.
[36] Ngai, 44.
[37] Ngai, 44-45.
[38] Lee and Yung, 145-146.
[39] Office of the Historian, “Repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act, 1943,” Milestones in the History of U.S. Foreign Relations, United States Department of State, accessed July 16, 2026, https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/immigration-act.
[40] Lee and Yung, 174.
[41] Rebecca M. Kulik, “Partition of India,” in Britannica Academic, edited by The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, last updated August 7, 2025, https://academic.eb.com/levels/collegiate/article/partition-of-India/640159.
[42] Lee and Yung, 316.
[43] Office of the Historian, “The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 (The McCarran-Walter Act),” Milestones in the History of U.S. Foreign Relations, United States Department of State, https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/immigration-act.
[44] Lee and Yung, 316.
[45] Jill H. Wilson, “Nonimmigrant and Immigrant Visa Categories: Data Brief (Updated),” in Visas: Categories, Work Visas and the Visa Waiver Program, edited by Brian A. Shelton, 1-2.
[46] Janet Afary, “Iranian Revolution,” in Britannica Academic, edited by The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, https://academic.eb.com/levels/collegiate/article/Iranian-Revolution/476048.
[47] Rob Hoveman, “How Iran’s 1979 revolution deposed hated Shah,” Socialist Worker, June 30, 2025, https://socialistworker.co.uk/in-depth/how-irans-1979-revolution-deposed-of-hated-shah/.
[48] Britannica Academic, s.v., “Iran hostage crisis,” https://academic.eb.com/levels/collegiate/article/Iran-hostage-crisis/403631.
[49] Elizabeth Mohn, “Trump Travel Ban (Executive Order 13769),” EBSCO, 2023, https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/trump-travel-ban-executive-order-13769.
[50] Julian Lim, “Plenary Powers: Chinese Immigration, Sovereignty Challenges, and the Making of Federal Immigration Power in the U.S. West,” The Journal of American History, December (2025), 510.
[51] Mohn.
[52] American Immigration Council, “Trump’s 2025 Travel Ban: Who Is Affected and What It Could Cost the U.S. Economy,” August 6, 2025, https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/report/trump-2025-travel-ban/.
[53] Allison Rutland and Jeanne Batalova, “Sub-Saharan African Immigrants in the United States,” Migration Information Source, Migration Policy Institute, October 16, 2025, https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/sub-saharan-african-immigrants-united-states.
[54] American Immigration Council, “Temporary Protected Stats (TPS): An Overview,” June 25, 2026, accessed July 11, 2026, https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/fact-sheet/temporary-protected-status-tps-overview/.
[55] Federal Register, “Extension and Redesignation of Somalia for Temporary Protected Status,” July 22, 2024, https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2024/07/22/2024-15829/extension-and-redesignation-of-somalia-for-temporary-protected-status.
[56] Nic Cheeseman, Eloïse Bertrand, & Sa’eed Husaini, “Somali Civil War (1991– ),” in A Dictionary of African Politics (1st ed.). Oxford University Press, 2019.
[57] Federal Register, “Termination of the Designation of Somalia for Temporary Protected Status,” January 14, 2026, https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2026/01/14/2026-00596/termination-of-the-designation-of-somalia-for-temporary-protected-status.
[58] Wilson, 17. Wilson clarifies that the law was intended to benefit European immigrant groups such as the Irish.
[59] Wilson, 19.
[60] Wilson, 20.
[61] Wilson, 21.
[62] Bobby Hunter and Victoria Yee, Dismantle, Don’t Expand: The 1996 Immigration Laws. Why ramping up a zero-tolerance immigration system will destroy lives and waste billions of dollars, report, Immigrant Justice Network, https://www.immigrantdefenseproject.org/wp-content/uploads/1996Laws_FINAL_Report_5.10.17.pdf.
[63] American Immigration Council, “Trump’s 2025 Travel Ban: Who Is Affected and What It Could Cost the U.S. Economy,” August 6, 2025, https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/report/trump-2025-travel-ban/.
[64] Mariel Ferragamo. “A Guide to the Countries on Trump’s Travel Ban List,” Council on Foreign Relations, January 14, 2026, https://www.cfr.org/articles/guide-countries-trumps-travel-ban-list.
[65] Monica Sone, Marie Rose Wong, and S. Frank Miyamoto. Nisei Daughter. Classics of Asian American Literature. (University of Washington Press, 2014), 5-8.
[66] Sone, 15.
[67] Sone, 34-36.
[68] Sone, 112-113.
[69] Sone, 192.
[70] Sone, 216-217.
[71] Sone, 225.
[72] Sone, 238.
[73] Sone, 5, 11, 46, and 181.
[74] Sone, 168.
[75] Sone, 33, 44-45, 62, and 117.
[76] Sone, 118 and 145.
[77] Sone, 158.
[78] Sone, 3.
[79] Sone, 125.
[80] Sone, 19.
[81] Sone, 40.
[82] Sone, 166-167.
[83] Sone, 211-214.
[84] Sone, 30-31.
[85] Sone, 17, 32, 52, and 198.
[86] Sone, 32 and 114.
[87] Sone, 43 and 63.
[88] Sone, 9.
[89] Sone, 16-17.
[90] Mary Paik Lee, Quiet Odyssey: A Pioneer Korean Woman in America, (University of Washington Press, 1990), 4.
[91] Lee, 6-7.
[92] Lee, 14, 21, 23, 27, 34.
[93] Lee, 12, 17, 22, 32, 34, 44, 51, and 72.
[94] Lee, 23, 39, and 43.
[95] Lee, 44-45.
[96] Lee, 62 and 66.
[97] Lee, 79, 83, and 92.
[98] Lee, 75, 85, 92, 94, and 101.
[99] Lee, 119 and 124.
[100] Lee, 134.
[101] Lee, 3 and 85.
[102] Lee, 94-95.
[103] Lee, 37.
[104] Lee, 68-69.
[105] Lee, 69.
[106] Lee, 29.
[107] Lee, 56.
[108] Lee, 77.
[109] Adeline Yen Mah, Falling Leaves: The True Story of an Unwanted Chinese Daughter, (Broadway Books, 1999), 22-23.
[110] Mah, 35.
[111] Mah, 28, 46, 49-50, and 57.
[112] Mah, 60, 116.
[113] Mah, 125 and 127.
[114] Mah, 154.
[115] Mah, 160 and 162.
[116] Mah, 165 and 170.
[117] Mah, 176 and 211.
[118] Mah, 237.
[119] Mah, 267.
[120] Mah, 5, 10-11, and 21.
[121] Mah, 6, 13, and 14.
[122] Mah, 82-83 and 138.
[123] Mah, 15, 21, and 78.
[124] Mah, 3.
[125] Mah, 256-257.
[126] Mah, 59.
[127] Mah, 44-45, 63, and 67-69.
[128] Mah, 128-131.
[129] Mah, 19 and 45.
[130] Firoozeh Dumas, Funny in Farsi: A memoir of growing up Iranian in America, (Random House Trade Paperbacks, 2008), 17 and 38.
[131] Dumas, 3.
[132] Dumas, 39.
[133] Dumas, 11.
[134] Dumas, 64-65.
[135] Dumas, 50, 82, and 118.
[136] Dumas, 117.
[137] Dumas, 132-133.
[138] Dumas, 146-149.
[139] Dumas, 39.
[140] Dumas, 68, 82, and 84.
[141] Dumas, 57 and 146-149.
[142] Dumas, 10-11 and 16.
[143] Dumas, 35.
[144] Dumas, 37.
[145] Dumas, 51.
[146] Dumas, 9.
[147] Dumas, 103.
[148] Dumas, 9-10 and 105-106.
[149] Dumas, 111-115.
[150] Dumas, 144 and 175-178.
[151] Dumas, 168.
[152] Dumas, 134-135.
[153] Dumas, 164.
[154] Dumas, 62 and 66.
[155] Aarti Namdev Shahani, Here We Are: American Dreams, American Nightmares. (Celadon Books, 2020), 10-16.
[156] Shahani, 21.
[157] Shahani 31-32 and 38-39.
[158] Shahani, 30 and 52.
[159] Shahani, 52.
[160] Shahani, 62-65.
[161] Shahani, 92.
[162] Shahani, 103.
[163] Shahani, 162.
[164] Shahani, 165 and 216.
[165] Shahani, 10.
[166] Shahani, 16.
[167] Shahani, 95.
[168] Shahani, 42 and 98.
[169] Shahani, 173-175, 195, and 199.
[170] Shahani, 111.
[171] Shahani, 37 and 55.
[172] Shahani, 26.
[173] Shahani, 18 and 34.
[174] Shahani, 24 and 202-203.
[175] Shahani, 92-93.
[176] Shahani, 218.
[177] Shahani, 106.
[178] Shahani, 84.
[179] Shahani, 54.
[180] Shahani, 206.
[181] Abdi Nor Iftin, Call Me American (Adapted for Young Adults): The Extraordinary True Story of a Young Somali Immigrant, (Random House Children’s Books, 2020), 5.
[182] Iftin, 39.
[183] Iftin, 43.
[184] Iftin, 61.
[185] Iftin, 138.
[186] Iftin, 149.
[187] Iftin, 150.
[188] Iftin, 153.
[189] Iftin, 166.
[190] Iftin, 184.
[191] Iftin, 219.
[192] Iftin, 25 and 65.
[193] Iftin, 7, 84, and 112.
[194] Iftin, 170 and 178.
[195] Iftin, 245.
[196] Iftin, 197.
[197] Iftin, 151.
[198] Iftin, 47.
[199] Iftin, 197.
[200] Iftin, 39, 54, and 59-60.
[201] Iftin, 58, 129, and 157.
[202] Iftin, 218 and 224.
[203] Iftin, 196 and 224.
[204] Iftin, 221.
[205] Iftin, 55.
[206] Iftin, 163.
[207] Iftin, 177.
[208] Iftin, 33.
[209] Iftin, 49.
[210] Harvey Daniels, Literature Circles: Voice and Choice in Book Clubs and Reading Groups, Second edition. (Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2024), chapter 2.
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