Historical Background
Ancient ancestors of the Pueblo people roamed around Chaco Canyon about ten thousand years ago. These people are known as the Paleo-Indians. They were hunters of big game, stalkers of bison, mammoth, antelope, and elk. People trying to live in those days must have had an incredibly difficult time. When there was nothing left to eat in camp they would have to look for food on the hoof. If a herd of mammoths was spotted, Paleo-Indians would have to gather a small group of able-bodied people together. It is generally assumed that they typically lived in small groups or bands of less than seventy or eighty people. Finding a herd was difficult enough, but then they had to figure out a plan of attack. The animals they killed were brought down using spears tipped with stone points made of chert or obsidian. When obsidian is broken or cracked, the resulting fragments are sharp as razor blades. These stone points were roughed out by holding a core stone in the palm of the hand, using another stone as a hammer to break off smaller pieces. A piece of hide would protect the palm of the hand during the shaping process. Once a piece was roughly the size needed, an antler tip would have been used to apply pressure to the edges of stone shape. Little flakes of stone could be carefully broken off the main stone until the final sharp notched shape was achieved (Cheek, 1994). These points were anywhere from a half-inch in length to several inches, depending upon their intended use. Spear points could be six inches, sometimes longer. They made excellent knives, scrapers, arrowheads, and spear points using this chipping method. The tips were bound tightly to their wooden handles with animal sinew. Held in the hands of an experienced hunter, they made excellent killing tools.
Armed with these stone tipped spears the hunters would track their game and wait for the most opportune moment to move in for the kill. Picture yourself for a moment, if you will, standing in elephant's pen at the zoo. You are holding a long wooden pole not much longer than the custodian's mop handle. You are not alone; two of your clan members are with you. Elephants probably run about as fast as a wooly mammoth. What's going to happen when you run up to the elephant and stick it in the side? It's quite possible that it is going to become more than a little incensed. It might even decide to chase you around a little bit. Hopefully your hunting pals don't chicken out and run away when the action starts. The hunting done in ancient times probably was not done for sport. Chances for injury to the hunting party were great. Paleo-Indians tried at every turn to find ways to kill prey without injury to the hunters. Why not run the animal into a muddy bog or creek, slow it down a bit? Perhaps a herd could be run over a cliff. These alternatives were often sought. Archeological evidence shows us that this is exactly what happened. At some sites there have been multiple stone points found, meaning that a number of animals were killed in the same place, probably by a number of people. One has to wonder if this was good for the hunters in the long run. Did they help bring an end to good hunting in an area? Killing a lot of animals at one time means that the herd will not produce more of its kind any more. Eventually, large mammoth herds became extinct, possibly hunted to extinction. As big game hunting activities decreased, there would naturally have been a very real need to find other food sources. There are some who believe that perhaps this need for alternative food was the reason agricultural methods were developed, perhaps there was no other choice. Gradually foods that formed the basis of the native diet were corn, beans, and squash.
Before we look at reasons for the beginnings of farming in the southwest it might be good to review what we know about archeology. So, what is archeology? Simply put, archeology is the study of past human cultures. It involves the study of material evidence, artifacts and sites. Artifacts would be any objects made or used by people. An archeological site is a place where humans lived and where there are material remains left. The archeologists are the people who study human cultures by analyzing or studying material evidence. But wait, now we need to have a good definition for what culture is. How about this one? The way individuals in a group of people live, what they think, what they believe, the way they do things in their day-to-day lives. Now we need to consider this: why is it necessary to study the past?
This isn't always easy to answer. People have different reasons to study the past. Sometimes we study the past so that we can remember who we are, who our family members were and what they did. Many of us want to know about our grandparents. Some of us want to know about our great grandparents. Often by taking a look towards the past we can begin to get a better picture of where it is we are going. We can also begin to see why things are done the way are, and why some things don't change very quickly.
Many of us visit special places over and over again. Maybe we have a special park we like to go to, certain places we go to have fun, ride our bikes, hang out. We develop a casual familiarity with places we like to go back to again and again. Other times we visit certain places repeatedly for different reasons, reasons that are often somewhat private. These could be important reasons to ourselves and to our families. Churches are like this for many people. They are important for deep-rooted, spiritual reasons. By placing importance on physical places we begin to realize that it is often necessary to preserve these places. Many of us would be quite angry, and insulted if a large company came into Santa Fe to tear down the cathedral, replacing it with a large hotel. The cathedral stands for something very important to a lot of people, not just the people who worship there on Sundays. It means a great deal to anyone who cares about preserving the past.
The two native cultures we are studying place a great deal of importance in preserving the past. They are cultures that use storytelling as a way of keeping in touch with their ancestors. Keeping traditions alive is of primary concern to a large number of Native Americans today. By studying their culture we too will become more aware of what places are important to them and why those places are worth saving. Even the camps of the nomadic hunter-gatherers are of historic value. Many of these are destroyed or at least overlooked by modern day people.
The ancient Pueblo native hunters were also gathering plants and seeds as they wandered from camp to camp. Once the larger game animals died, though, these people began to settle down. As they eventually settled into areas along the Rio Grande, they were able sustain themselves with planted crops. Squash, beans, and corn became the main food sources for these people. Once agricultural methods were developed into farming, people had a need to store the foods they grew. Baskets began to appear about eighteen hundred years ago. Yucca-fiber baskets have been found that were tightly woven and could hold water (Cheek1994:94). Having established maize agriculture, people could stay in one place for several generations. Establishing a steadier food source meant that it was not necessary to move as often.
The woven basket would have been a great step towards grain and food storage. An even greater advance would have been the discovery of pottery. It makes sense that a clay pot would be much better to cook food in than a basket. Prior to pot making the only way to heat water would have been to add hot rocks to the filled basket. The question of how pottery was discovered is an interesting one. There is evidence that early people lined baskets with clay. Once the baskets were placed in the fire the woven material would eventually burn away. The result would have been fire-hardened clay in the shape of the basket. It is also possible that people may have discovered that clay can be fire hardened in fire accidentally. It is possible then that pottery was not necessarily discovered after basketry. In any case, the discovery of clay as a vessel making material was an important one.
The early pots were very utilitarian, not at all fancy. It wasn't until about thirteen hundred years ago that we begin to see the use of simple designs used as decoration on the outside of pots. Somewhere around eight hundred years ago the pots that were being designed had very intricate, with a variety of styles. All the work was hand built, the coil method. The inside and outside of the pots were scraped smooth using gourd pieces or an old pot sherd. On some cooking pots you might find corrugations, little indentations. These pots have a very textured look to them. Looking at ancient designs today you can see all types of patterns, geometric shapes, checkerboards, zigzags, symmetrical patterns, organic shapes, and dots. These techniques and styles have been modified over the years, but the basic concepts are used even today in traditionally built pottery.
As ancient people developed their farming lifestyle and the making of pottery, and woven goods, both crafts reached a very advanced state. Clay color varied from area to area, as did color of the fired product. The ceramic process involved the use of clay as a paint or slip to decorate, and the dried pots were fired under organic material found locally. Some say that perhaps the intricate color use and patterning on the pottery, which now had taken on numerous shapes, was of great importance, the symbols having lots of meanings that may be lost to the modern viewer. The woven goods became quite varied and of a fine quality. In addition to baskets, bags, sandals and pieces of clothing were created. A variety of fibers, including cotton, dog hair, human hair, and plant fibers such as the yucca, were utilized. Rabbit fur and feathers were also woven into textiles. At this point in time large numbers of people were living in the Rio Grande pueblos, from Isleta in the south to Taos in the north. Out west the Zuni and the Hopi were trading now with people hundreds of miles to the south, east, and west. All in all, life in the upper Rio Grande valley in 1492 was relatively uneventful and satisfying, with rich trade and beautiful and complex ceremonials to break up the drudgery of the agricultural round (Riley,1994:119). In less than fifty years life would be changed radically for all the natives of the continents, for in 1540 the Spanish expeditionary force reached the area around what is now called Albuquerque. With the Spanish came disease, war, and ultimately slavery for many of the natives. Over the next hundred years the native inhabitants found them selves in the midst of all out war, their traditions and beliefs were attacked, their homes destroyed. The population dropped dramatically. The fabric of their culture was unraveling.
Eventually the Pueblo Revolt took place in 1680. In this native uprising, the Pueblo peoples drove the Spanish out, first from Santa Fe, and soon from the entire region. A large number of Spanish priests were killed at their mission churches, the missions themselves having been built primarily with the use of Indian slaves. Freedom from the Spanish was not long lasting. In 1692 a Spanish force marched into New Mexico again. Diego de Vargas and his small sued for peace, establishing a peace that has lasted into present day. Natives continued to be subjugated, but the strangle hold eased up somewhat. Little importance was placed on the continuance of native crafts at this time. With such a dramatic upheaval in the lives of the people many of the local methods and techniques were lost. In some areas, many native crafts simply disappeared. It has taken many generations to revive lost crafts traditions. Relocation, death by disease and warfare all contributed to the change in crafts production.
It is interesting to note that the Spanish entrada, the peaceful reentry into Santa Fe, is celebrated even today. Each fall, after the school year starts, the Fiestas de Santa Fe take place. Preparations go on all year, but the culminating event takes place in a week of visits by "Don Diego de Vargas and his royal court" to every school in the district. The court consists of Don Diego, half a dozen princesas, and a whole host of lesser noblemen, soldiers, and even the clergy. Mariachi bands play, parties abound, hotels fill to capacity. Music, and "viva la fiesta" rings through the streets of the down town area. State workers are given flex time to attend fiesta functions, schools adjust schedules to receive the court. Amongst the princesas one can see a young Native American woman in native costume. The fact that Spanish culture has stamped its mark on the culture locally is undeniable. There is also a continual controversy of the ethics of such pageantry in the public schools themselves. Native participation in the fiesta seems to be minimal. The party, no doubt, will go on.
Eventually the native people were left somewhat to their own devices. Populations in the Pueblos areas and in the Navajo country stabilized slightly. The two hundred years after the Pueblo revolt brought a steady pressure on the native religions to except the trappings of Catholicism, and to some extent we see this even today. There are presently mission churches on almost all of the modern day Pueblos. Then, in 1848, after two years of war, Mexico ceded a vast portion of its territory to the United States. The Dineh, the name the Navajo tribe calls itself, later saw a huge change in its structure as large numbers of its people were relocated by the post-Civil War United States Army. The effect of moving a fairly nomadic tribe onto reservations with few resources was dramatic. It was during this time that silver jewelry work was taken up by Navajo craftsmen. After further relocation the tribal tradition of weaving finely crafted rugs became established. Eventually the tribe would become well known for grazing large herds of sheep.
An interesting thing happened in the late 1800's. The southwest was growing steadily, more and more European settlers, trappers, soldiers, and missionaries were streaming into the area. The two really big changes that would affect Indian culture was the establishment of the Santa Fe trail and the arrival of the railroad. Now the dominant Spanish colonial society was itself being changed into more of a melting pot as settlers from the east, and ultimately the west came pouring into the southwest. As settlements along the growing railroad system grew so did tourism. The effect of the tourist trade on the revival of native arts and crafts is very significant. As the country literally rolled into the twentieth century, so did the tourists. Destinations like the Grand Canyon, Navajo country, Hopi and Sky City, Taos Pueblo, all had great appeal for a growing nation of people with more leisure time and some money to spend. With the advent of the automobile expeditions into Indian land went further afield. Indian country tours were advertised widely. The southwest's uniqueness begins to be translated into economic terms. Tourism brings income, money. The local tribes are not the only people who benefit from this industry. Many areas of the southwest depend upon the annual visitation of people from around the world.
Early in the railroad days of the southwest travelers on the trains could find a variety of goods for sale by native vendors, pots, kachina figurines, baskets. The items were brought to the railroad stations and depots by the crafts people. As transportation and roads improved, visitors traveled to the source. A variety of items could be found at the home. Crafts people could be seen as they created the items for sale. This is a phenomenon, or tradition that carries on today, the artisan working in the home studio. A network of trading posts was also well established by the end of the twentieth century, and to a lesser extent is still in existence. Trading fairs and annual Indian markets, like the one mentioned earlier, have increased the marketability of the crafts and all things native. Under the portal at the Palace of the Governors on can find an orderly row of native vendors selling their wares. Working with city officials the vendors have organized an official body that represents its people. Vendors must go through the proper channels to obtain permission to set up each morning. A range of talent and quality exists under the portal, but one thing remains constant, an adherence to traditional art forms and styles. Through an incredible journey of hardship, decimation by disease, droughts, famine, economic depression, family dislocation, and all the other social ills common to life in America today, we still find native people creating art work that has its roots firmly grounded in the past.
Can a traditional art form change? If a style of art such as we find in the pottery and weaving of the southwest begins to be influenced by the people who buy the art, is it still traditional? If a tourist asks an artisan to use a very modern or recognizable logo (such as a Nike swoosh) to traditional a pot or blanket, and if the artisan complies and makes the piece, is it still traditional art? Modern day artisans do indeed have these questions asked of them. They are asked to do commissioned work, they are asked to create a piece of work in a specific form, color, or design. Over the last one hundred years collectors, museum curators, tourists, gallery and store owners have been interested in obtaining native crafts. Some have requested specific items.
Who are the modern day native people? The Pueblo people of today are divided into nineteen separate tribes. They are known today by their traditional names and the names given to them by the Spanish after the 1500's. There has recently been a shift to more traditional names. They are commonly known as the Hopi, Zuni, Acoma, Cochiti, Laguna, San Felipe, Santo Domingo, Zia, Taos, Picuris, Sandia, Isleta, San Juan, Santa Ana, Santa Clara, Nambe, San Ildefonso, Pojoaque, Tesuque, and Jemez. Many of today's native people live on tribal lands. They have found work in the modern world outside the Pueblos in a multitude of jobs. Their tribal governments strive to improve life in and around the traditional Pueblo, a variety of agencies provide services on the reservations. The reservations themselves vary greatly in size and population. Some allow visitation by outsiders, charging for entry onto the property. Some are very strict about access to the Pueblo and only allow visitors on feast days and dances. Others limit out side access during special religious observances and dances. People planning to visit the tribal functions call ahead these days and talk to the tribal governor's office, or they contact the tribal visitor center as many of these exist today.
The Navajo Nation has the largest tribal reservation in the country. Many on the reservation adhere to their culture, often living at a subsistence level of existence. Some have moved off the reservation and have blended into the greater population of the United States. They too have made an effort to maintain tribal traditions. They have a well established governing body, a school system, and tribal police force.
Comments: