Strategies for Use of Images
Once I determined that I wanted my unit to be based on images I needed to decide what to do with each image. One image can be utilized in a number of different ways. The objectives of the lesson and the reason a particular image is used will guide me in selecting the techniques I deploy and when in the lesson I present the image. It is important to remember the images themselves are tools to help the students' understanding of larger historical concepts. I will use some of these strategies alone and some will be used in concert with others.
Most of the strategies I use are adapted from the Teachers' Curriculum Institute (TCI) Approach. They are elements of a program called History Alive. I use the TCI approach for several reasons. First, I think they are good instructional techniques. Many of the activities I used before I was trained in the TCI approach were similar to it. Those activities were fairly easy to adapt to it. Second, my district looks for these techniques when they observe Social Studies teachers.
This is probably a good place to make a few quick points about using images. I project the images using either a transparency or an LCD projector and computer. The images need to be as large as possible. This will be limited by the room arrangement. I bought a large table cloth from a restaurant supply store to use as a screen. Size does matter, and the bigger the better. To focus on details I use a piece of white unlined paper, printer paper is good. By holding this paper in front of the detail I want to examine, it blows the image up and helps focus the students. Plus they really get a kick out of this.
Spiraling Questions
Spiraling questions help students learn how to analyze and interpret images and lead them to higher level thinking skills (Bower, 2004:31). Because students are not trained to investigate images, this is an excellent strategy to use early in the year. These types of questions will increase the visual literacy of the students. There are three basic types of questions.
The first type of question has the students gather evidence (Bower, 2004:31). The students look at the image and describe what they see. The simplest question to ask is "What do you see?" Another way of putting this is "How would you describe this scene?" I like to ask my lower level students these questions. Because there is very little chance they will get it wrong, they are more willing to answer and not respond with an "I don't know." After a few positive experiences at this level, I have found they are more willing to try other types of questions. Questions on this level that are a bit more challenging ask them to identify important details in the image or to describe what they might hear or smell if they were there. I am always amazed at the details some students will pick out. They particularly love it when I tell them I had not noticed something. Details in the images will be clearer the farther back you are from it. For this reason I make sure I view the image from the back of the room and also have the students switch seats while looking at an image.
Once they finish this type of questioning, we move on to the second level which is interpreting what they see or making inferences (Bower, 2004:31). Questions on this level will have them answer when or where the image made or what was happening in the image. I follow up their answer with asking for one or two pieces of evidence to support the answer. Those supporting bits of evidence often come from the details that were described as answers to level one questions or the student's prior knowledge. These questions will determine the what, when, where and who. It is very important to have them support their answers. I firmly believe that skills used in one area should re-enforce and transfer to other areas. When my students answer written prompts they have to defend their answers using evidence. This is the same skill in a different form. Lower level students can answer these types of questions as well. The questions may need to be phrased a bit differently, particularly the first several times this is done. Usually, I start out prompting them with one piece of evidence and then ask the question. After they answer I will ask for other evidence to support their answer. After a few times of doing this I start out with the question and then prompt if they are having trouble. For example: the image is of Washington, DC. I ask, "What city is this?" The student tells me and provides the Lincoln Memorial as evidence. If I am not getting a response I would say, "We said the U.S. Capitol is in this picture. Where is that located?" This often gets results and is less threatening to many students.
The third level of questions requires the students to make a hypothesis based on the evidence and interpretations. (Bower, 2004:32) The students determine motives. Why and how are key to this level. Why are the people in the picture doing this? How would you feel if you were there? These questions use the higher level thinking skills and require the students to justify, synthesize, predict and evaluate (Bower, 2204:32). By previously asking level one and two questions, it is easier to get all students to answer these questions. I have led them through the thought process. Depending on the ability range of the class and/or student, I tailor the questions so that they can be successful answering them. After all, success breeds success.
Acronyms
My district is very large. We have 20 traditional high schools each of which is fed by three or more middle schools. Students frequently transfer from one school to another. We have been working on a vertical teaming model. The focus has been on the eighth and eleventh grades because U.S. History is taught at these levels. The teachers with vertical team training are to act as lead teachers and instruct the other Social Studies teachers the skills learned in the training.
In Advance Placement U.S. History the Document Based Question (DBQ) is vital. Students are given a prompt and are provided with a series of documents to aid in their answers. They are to answer the prompt using the documents and outside information. They need to be able to analyze the documents to answer the question. Starting in sixth grade the students begin experiencing mini-DBQs. We use common analytical tools to help the students deal with the documents which might be written or visual. The theoretical advantage for me teaching on the junior level is that most of my students will have mastered the techniques or they are at least familiar with them.
There are four acronyms that I frequently use to help students analyze documents. SOAPSTone is the first one they are taught. While this is best with primary source textual material, I have adopted it to images. This prompts the students to identify speaker, occasion, audience, purpose, subject, and topic. This is taught starting in the sixth grade. A variation of that which is also best used with primary source textual material is APPARTS. This cues the students to identify author, place/time, prior knowledge, attitude, tone, reason and subject. This is taught in the honor eighth grade classes and in all freshmen World History. We have been working with the English departments to have them use this technique as well. The last two work well with visuals and well as written material and secondary as well as primary sources. I have my students create graphic organizers to record their data. The students use the documents and categorize what they observe and/or infer with the help of these devices. The third analytical device is PERSIA which encourages them to find political, economic, religious, social, intellectual and artistic connections. The last is ASPRITE which stands for artistic, social, religious, intellectual, technological, and economic.
This type of analysis is not as student friendly as spiraling questions because there is not as big a safety net for my reluctant participants. I am just starting to teach students who have been using the SOAPSTone approach since middle school. I do see a huge difference in their comfort level and willingness to trust their instincts in answering. I also find it easier to have them use one of the other techniques because they have a basic understanding of how to do the analysis and why they are doing it.
Image Interaction
After the students have analyzed the image I need to assess what they have learned from it. A good way to do this is to have them interact with or become part of the image. This can be done in a variety of ways. I have found that many students feel "silly" about this at the start of the year. After we do it a few times they are more comfortable with the technique, and we get better results. I also have found that if they use props they are more likely to get into character. It is as if the prop gives them permission to pretend. The prop can be anything from a construction paper hat they made, a yardstick standing in for a rifle, or a piece of yarn for reins. Sometimes I proved mask templates that they can personalize to their liking. These props allow them to be someone else.
Early in the year I will script out a little play. By reading the script and representing the people in the image which is projected in the background, the students are introduced to this type of activity. Some of the scripts use the actual words of historical people—a discussion between Hamilton and Jefferson. Some are made up to illustrate the point. Some I write and others are adapted from other sources. After we do this a few times, I vary the activity by providing several students with role cards prior to the analysis section. A role card provides a name, a brief description of the role, some ideas or key phrases and questions that are important to the role (Bower, 2004:34). After the analysis the students take their place and stand against the backdrop of the picture. I might act as a TV news reporter and interview them or have them carry on a conversation. Another possibility is to have the students pose like one of the persons in the picture. When called on the student steps out of the picture and explains their thoughts, feelings and reactions to the activity in the image. This provides them with a "you are there" experience. For example when I am teaching the Whiskey Rebellion, a student representing one of the farmers becomes part of the picture. The student looks up and sees the huge horses and the thousand of soldiers coming towards him/her. Then the student may better understand how those farmers felt and why the rebellion crumbled. Another way to have them interact with the images is to divide the students into small groups and have them write scripts. I use this technique later in the year after we have practiced becoming the picture, and they are comfortable with acting. I try to limit groups to no more than four. With this number I can be fairly sure that all are participating in the preparation process. I assign group roles: one person is in charge of props, one writes, one researches, and one ensures historical accuracy. All have to act in the play. I also have discovered this works better on days I use more than one image. Each group analyzes their own image, writes and performs their skit. Their skit is responsible for teaching the other students the information they learned from their images. With a tight time schedule it is possible for me to do this in do 90 minute class period. If it runs into two days inevitably the student who has the script is absent. The students appear to enjoy these because they are active. They are getting out of their seats. They are moving around. They are involved and they have ownership and responsibility.
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