Images
Use
I do not intend to teach this unit all at once. It will be taught throughout the course. The images will be introduced at the appropriate chronological time. The framework of the unit provides a thread for me to follow all year. This approach will act as a bridge between material currently being covered, previously mastered concepts and anticipated future material. As the year progresses the students' visual literacy will improve and twill become more confident reading the images.
Agenda
Three themes have been identified in art representing the last 500 years the settlement of North America by the Europeans. They are discovery, erasure and invention, and these themes can be found simultaneously in one work (Prown, 1992:vii). With these themes in mind, I have identified phases of Euro-American perceptions 0f Native Americans upon which I wish to focus. In the contact or discovery era, I want to use the idea that the "New World," as it was called, was a "New Eden." The Native Americans were portrayed as noble and exotic. This point of view changed when the colonists and Native Americans began the unavoidable clash of cultures particularly on land issues. The savage emerges as Native Americans are portrayed as kidnapping, scalping, killing and burning villages. While there was some truth to these portrayals, over-exaggeration utilizes the theme of invention. It provided Euro-Americans with propaganda devices to overcome moral objections to how Native Americans were displaced, dispersed, dispelled, and dispatched (Jennings, 1975:vii). During the Manifest Destiny era the art tended focus on erasure as Native Americans were being driven out so progress could take place. If they are not seen being pushed out they are often found on the side or the corner of a painting watching Euro-American civilization pass them by. At this same time period we find images that are sympathetic to the Native Americans. Painters tried to revive them as a noble and dying race. Many artists who practiced this genre actually thought the Native Americans were facing extinction and needed to be recorded. This is a form of invention. To examine the assimilation policy of the federal government we will use photographs from boarding schools and a poster selling Indian land. We will look at images that use Native Americans as advertising tools and discuss stereotypes. To discuss Native Americans in modern society I will continue to use photographs. The Mohawk steelworkers will make the point that Native Americans still exist and they are not frozen in time.
Images
The images that are discussed here are recommendations. Teachers should feel free to substitute images of their choosing. Images that relate to the geographical area where the unit is being taught will impact the students to a greater degree than images from another part of the country.
"Indians Fishing" by John White and "Their Manner of Fishynge" in Virginia by Theodor DeBry
John White was an artist and cartographer hired to proved an accurate portrayal of the peoples, flora, fauna and geographical features of the "New World" as it was called. He was part of a 1585 expedition to the Carolinas and Virginia. White's opportunity to record Native Americans was unique in that he was the first contact these Indians had with Europeans (Hutton, 1984:27). He produced over 70 watercolors which were not published until the 20th century. While his work was not published, it was the basis for a series of engravings by Theodor DeBry. In 1590 several engravings were printed in Thomas Hariot's account of exploration entitled A Briefe and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia. It is easy to see White's work in the engraving, but it is important to note changes made by DeBry.
White's work represented many similar scenes and not just one place. In the foreground we find a small stretch of land with some vegetation; in the water we can easily identify crabs, a hammerhead shark and other forms of sea life; the center of the picture has a dug out canoe with one oarsman, one dip-netter and two men crouching on either side of a fire. The men look healthy and are dressed in loincloths. Huge fish are in the bottom of the boat. In the background two men are spear fishing, a fish weir is present, more fish can be seen in the water, a few birds are in the sky, and another canoe appears to be in the distance. DeBry has the same elements but more of them. There are more plants on the shore, turtles are swimming in the water, there are three fish weirs, more canoes, more spear-fishers, and more birds flying. A coastline with trees, hills and what appears to be village is now in the background. The canoe with the four men is still the focus. There is a subtle difference between the occupants of the canoe in the two works. DeBry's men seem more muscular. The faces that can be seen have a classical Greco-Roman look to them which was probably more acceptable to Europeans of the time. DeBry's engraving is definitely a call to come to the "New World," which a land of plenty was found.
These images need to be shown together. They introduce the students to the idea of compilation. While White witnessed all these things, he did not see them in one place. Showing the two together demonstrates that artists did copy each other. The copies had minor changes but over the course of several artists those changes could become substantial.
"Pocahantas" by Simon van de Passe and "Pocahontas" by unknown artist
The Simone van de Passe is an engraved portrait of Pocahontas made in 1616, and was the only portrait of her made in life (Scheckel, 1998:41). She is dressed as if she is ready to attend the queen at court. Around her in a frame and inscribed at the bottom of the engraving is information about her. The engraving revealed that she was born Matoaka, became a Christian and given the name Rebecca, was the daughter of the Prince Powhatan who was emperor of Virginia, and married John Rolfe. This provides a sense that she was an important person of the day.
Unlike the White/DeBry works, the Pocahontas engraving came first. The portrait by the unknown artist is an oil painting and there are several variations. In the oil we can see she was made a little more European. Her skin is white, her hair and eyes are brown, and her features are soften somewhat. She is still dressed in court attire, but it does not appear to be as flamboyant and detailed. One of the interesting differences is that the engraving properly identifies her English husband and John Rolfe while the oil lists his Christian name as Thomas.
The tradition is that Pocahontas was a "good Indian." She saved John Smith's life and helped Jamestown survive. In part, her goodness is manifested because she recognized the European superiority (Schekel, 1998:50-1). How do we know this? She became a Christian, she married an Englishman, and she went to England. To Europeans, she was an Indian princess who gave that up because the European culture was better.
Again these two images need to be shown together. The students can explore the royalty connection and why was it important to the Euro-American point of view that she was willing to become Anglicized. They also need to explore the reasons why the oil does not provide an accurate representation of her or properly identify her husband. For that matter might they question the accuracy of the engraving?
The Massacre of the Settlers in 1622" by Mathaeus Merian
Merian was a printer/engraver from the DeBry workshop (www.vahistorical.org). This work is a hand-colored engraving from the German edition of the book America published in 1628. It is a composition illustration, like White's work, which was not intended to represent a single event but to show a series of events.
The image is of an English settlement under Indians attack. There are substantial looking houses—some of which are two storied, made with smooth wood, and probably did not exist. One group of colonists is sitting at a cloth covered table and eating a meal as they are being attacked. Another is hewing a timber from a log. One, perhaps a woman, is calling for help from a second story window. A shadowy figure in the next window seems to be an attacker. Colonists, including women and children, are being stabbed, chased, and beaten with clubs. In the background four canoes loaded with Indians are moving toward the shore. Puffs of white smoke from the distant shore hint at some defensive acts by the colonists. Some of the elements are anachronistic, European publishers often used the works of artists who imaged the scenes (www.vahistorical.org). It was this uprising that marks the change from the theme of discovery to the need for erasure. What changed?
The first impression Europeans had of the Native Americans was one of hospitality and cooperation. Every kindergartener knows how Squanto saved the Pilgrims. The hospitality ended when they entered a phase of struggle for land and power (Berkhofer, 1978:18). As far as the English were concerned this was a winner take all proposition. In 1614 the Powhatans agreed to a peace with the English at Jamestown. It should be noted this was after Pocahontas was taken as a hostage. More colonists came, and they wanted more land to establish tobacco plantations. Finally the Powhatans had enough and on March 22, 1622 they attacked English settlements. This attack is the subject of the engraving. Approximately 347 colonists or 16th of the English population was killed (Fausz, 1998). Jamestown was spared because two Indians informed the settlement of the plot. The colonists retaliated. In May of 1623 peace talks were held. The Indian representatives were given poisoned wine, and 200 fell ill or died immediately. Another 50 were shot and killed. (Fausz, 1998) The war dragged on for another ten years.
In reality neither the English nor the Native Americans could take the high moral ground. In Europe only word of the native America atrocities was published. The Merian engraving and others like it served as propaganda to justify an extermination policy. Brian W. Dippie has said that these types of portrayals placed native Americans in the role of villains, pure savages, an obstacle that needed to be removed.
Massachusetts Bay Colony Seal of 1629
The Massachusetts Bay Colony was chartered in 1629 by Charles I of England. Part of the charter stated a goal of the colony was to convert the Native Americans to the "one true God" (Jennings, 1975:230). With the charter was the authority to use a seal. The first seal was used from 1629 to 1686 and again from 1689 to 1692.
The seal was oval in shape. The figure in the center of the seal is a Native American with open arms holding a bow in his left hand and an arrow in his right. The gesture appears to be a welcoming one. He is saying, "Come over and help us." The open arms and words stress the missionary and commercial intent of the colonists. As an aside, on several versions of the seal the Indian is not holding an arrow but a pine tree. This version stresses more clearly the commercial nature of the venture.
The Indian's words are a quote from Acts 16:9 of the New Testament. The students should connect the use of the Bible with the Puritans' quest for religious freedom. The students should see this as a blatant display of English superiority. It is as if the New England tribes now need the British to survive. Students should also be able to identify this artifact as following the discovery theme.
Massacre of Whites by Indians and Blacks in Florida by D.F. Blanchard
This woodcut is composed of a series of illustrations representing massacres in Florida between December 1835 and April 1836. The woodcut's text claims that over 400 men, women, and children were murdered. Starting in the upper left corner, the first depicts Seminoles and blacks dancing around a fire. The Seminoles to the left are smaller than the blacks to the right. The second scene shows the Dade Massacre. Major Francis Dade and 108 soldiers were ambushed by 300 Seminoles near Fort King. The third top cut is of a white woman taken into captivity by Seminoles. The woman who is the third figure in line has her arms outstretched either in prayer or pleading to be released. Moving to the bottom left image, we find on the far left a Seminole holding a hatchet high in the air. His intention is clear. He is about to slay the young boy kneeling in front of him. To the right of the boy is a woman kneeling; her hands reaching out toward a tiny white babe. The baby is returning the gesture from the arms of a Seminole woman who is taking the infant away. Has the little one just been torn from the mother's arms? Is the mother begging for the return of her child? The next two scenes portray killings. In the first blacks are attacking two white men. One of the whites has fallen backwards and is on his knees. A muscular black man is ready to bring down a cane knife. A black stands in the space between the two. He is weaponless. His hand and a finger is pointed skyward. It is almost as if he is lecturing the soon to be dead man. To the right of these three in the same scene one white is fighting back. The next panel again shows two white men. This time it is Seminoles who are the killers. To the far left a Seminole with a knife raised high above his head has grabbed the wrist of a white man, perhaps preventing the white from striking him. The placement of the hands and feet of the men give them almost a dance like quality. The second white man has lost his footing. He is down. A Seminole has grabbed his wrist with one hand. His hatchet is posed to do its work in the other. Behind the white a Seminole stands. He has the young man's hair pulled up in one hand and a knife in the other. Scalping is imminent. The faces of the whites are fairly clear. We can see the looks of fear. The only Seminole face which has any facial expression is the scalper. While it is a bit blurry, he is smiling. The last image is on the right side of the woodcut and covers the entire side. In the upper left section we again see Seminoles dancing around a fire. The right side shows a building engulfed in flames. In the foreground, two Seminoles are standing on either side and looking down on two white women, a mother and daughter perhaps, Each is begging with a Seminole. Because no weapons are present we can assume the women will be made captives.
The Second Seminole War started on Dec. 28, 1835. On that day an Indian agent was killed and Dade Massacre occurred. The Seminoles were suppose to be removed to the Indian Territory and did not want to go (Mihesuah, 1996:31). Prior to 1818 Florida belonged to Spain. It was used as a haven by runaway slaves. The runaways were often accepted by the Seminoles. Even after acquisition by the United States, runaways particularly from Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina had a better chance of escaping to the Seminoles than finding freedom using the Underground Railroad. It was a matter of geography. Because of the runaway component, abolitionists in the North were generally opposed to this war. Southerners tended to be in favor of it. They wanted the Seminole removed, and they wanted to eliminate a haven for runaways. The war itself was fought using guerilla tactics. The Seminoles were outnumbered 40 to one. They fought wisely and were constantly on the move. Because of that they did not take many captives even through three of the scenes depict them doing so. The depiction of the blacks killing the whites had been published five years before after Nat Turner's Rebellion in Virginia. When the war in Florida ended, 1,000 Seminoles and 1,500 American soldiers were dead. The fighting ended in 1837 when the Seminoles ran out of food and ammunition. It had coast the government approximately $20 million dollars to subdue them. Many of the Seminoles were removed to the Indian Territories, and others disappeared into the Everglades. The formal peace treaty ending this war was signed in 1956 (Mihesuah, 1996:31).
Students can easily identify the theme of erasure. Because this focuses upon the South, students will be alert to the dual fears of slave uprisings as well as Indian problems. This image is excellent to use to make connections to the issue of slavery and the sectional tensions that were heightened by it.
Pigeon's Egg Head (The Light) Going to and Returning From Washington by George Catlin
In this oil painting we see two views of an Assiniboine leader. It is a version of the modern before and after picture. On the left Pigeon Egg Head is dressed in his finest. He is wearing a long feathered headdress. The fringe work and colors of his buckskin is clearly visible on his ceremonial outfit. In 1831 he was invited, as were many other Native American leaders, to Washington, DC where he spent a year. On the left side we can see how he returns. He has traded in his clothes for a single feathered beaver skin hat, a military uniform complete with gold epaulettes, and high heeled boots. He holds a blue umbrella and a fan. Out of is back pocket a whiskey bottle is visible (Catlin, 1989:58). Catlin reported he had been back a half hour before he was recognized. This visual graphically demonstrates how contact with Americans led to the corruption of Pigeon Egg Head.
Catlin is considered the first great painter of Native Americans and was responsible for about 600 portraits and sketches which he made from life. His interest probably stemmed from stories his mother told him. She had been captured by Indians when she was eight and had been redeemed (Axelrod, 1990:132). He painted them to preserve them (Groseclose, 200:171). His work is based on the dual themes of erasure and invention. He thought Native Americans were going to be exterminated and needed to be shown as a noble and proud civilization. He was not above exploiting them. He compiled his work into an Indian Gallery. He took this on tour in Europe. To promote his Gallery he had a Wild West Show. In Liverpool he hired 20 Englishmen to dress as Indians and do war dances (Axelrod, 1990:249).
Catlin is only half of the story. After Pigeon Egg Head returned from Washington, he told stories about what he experienced in Washington, DC. Catlin reported that the tribe thought he was a liar and imposter. He was disgraced and shunned by the leaders. Eventually, he was killed by his own tribe who either tired of his bragging because he met President Andrew Jackson or deemed his tales to be dangerous lies (Axelrod 1990:57).
Students can view this painting in two ways. They can focus on the evils of Euro-Americans and how they brought about the downfall of the Native American race, which was Catlin's point of view. The other option is to focus on the weakness and vulnerability of Native Americans when confronted with Euro-American culture that would cause them to gravitate to the worst that Euro-American culture had to offer, i.e. alcoholism.
American Progress by John Gast
The eye-catching feature of this painting is the central figure of the woman. Her long blond tresses are held back by a headband that prominently features a star. She is floating above the landscape sensuously clad in an off one shoulder diaphanous white sheath. She is carrying a large book in her right hand and from her left elbow dangles a coil. A line stretches from the coil to her left hand. If we follow that line further, we discover it is a telegraph wire. In the bottom left is a bear, growling his head is turned rearward. Above him is a group of Native Americans moving out of the picture like the bear. They are running is a herd of buffalo just above them. In the front center, we see a road and on it is a group of men easily identified as a fur trapper and miners. Following them is a yoke of oxen and two farmers, one of whom is pushing a plow. We find the trappings of the start of civilization by them in the form of a fence and a cabin nestled in the lower right corner. To the left of the floating figure is a Conestoga wagon and a single horse rapidly moving west. By her foot is a stagecoach and below the telegraph lines is a train. In the distance can be seen wagon trains and more trains. In the upper left are snowcapped mountains and on the right is a body of water with large ships and a city. The left side of the picture has a dark quality while the right is light. In fact, the light seems to emanate from the central female figure.
This painting which was completed in 1872 is an excellent expression of Manifest Destiny. We see civilization marching westward driving the Native Americans before them (Groseclose, 2000:158). The buffalo and Native Americans are being pushed further west into the dark. We can trace how Euro-Americans moved west by examining the figures and what they represent. We get a sense of how they moved west by their positions on the canvas. This work is a form of a commemorative which celebrates the displacement of Native Americans for progress (Dippie, 1992:96).
The students can use the image to trace Euro-American westward migration. The light and dark imagery really bring home how that generation felt about Native Americans and what Manifest Destiny was all about.
Fantasies by Walter Ufer
This paining has a definite feel of nostalgia about it. The central figure is an artist with pallet and paintbrush in hand. He is dressed in what could be construed as a military uniform. We can barely see the edge of his current work in progress. He is standing amid Native American artifacts—a woven rug, a ceremonial drum, and pottery are scattered around him. A woman in a black dress is seated and reading a book. Between the artist and the his easel appears a ghost like image of a Native American.
This image marks a change from the previous one. When Native Americans occupied the lands desired by Euro-Americans, they were seen as an impediment to progress. Once they were defeated, they could be viewed romantically (Oswalt, 199:4). This work is part of that romantic ideal. The threat that Native Americans had been perceived as posing was gone. They could once again be viewed sympathetically.
The students will identify the change in mood of this painting and the reasons for that change. The theme is invention as Native Americans will be cast in a new light.
Before and After Photographs of Apache Children at the Carlisle Indian School
These two photographs must be used together. The first is a group photo of Apaches, male and female, in their traditional garb. The second poses the same children in American style clothing and haircuts four months later. These children were sent to the Carlisle Indian School in Pennsylvania.
The Carlisle School was founded by Army Captain Richard H. Pratt in 1879. His slogan was, "Kill the Indian and save the man!" The boarding school and others like it were attempts to assimilate Native Americans into the Euro-American culture. The schools had programs of rigorous studies, military discipline and harsh punishment. By the end of the 19th century, there were 148 such school scattered across the nation trying to assimilate about 20,000 youths (Mihesuah, 1996:41). There were problems with this arrangement. The students had trouble communicating with the teachers; they lost the involvement and support of parents, which is important in most Native American cultures; and they were no longer allowed to speak their native languages or practice their religions. Some accepted this, some tried to run, and a few committed suicide (Mihesua, 1996:42). The irony is that Euro-Americans still did not accept them as equals, and they lost the acceptance of their tribes.
The students will evaluate these images while focusing upon the assimilation policy of the United States. They will examine the ramifications of these actions and the outcomes. They will understand that the basis for assimilation is the inherent belief that the Euro-American culture is superior.
Photographs of Contemporary Native Americans
In spite of the fears of George Catlin and efforts by the U. S. Government, Native Americans are still a presences in our nation. It is important that students understand that Native Americans still exist and are contributing members of American society. These images have to move away from the teepee and feathers stereotypes. There are approximately 2.1 million Native Americans in America. Some of them live in one of the 286 official reservations. Many, about one million, do not live on reservations and never have (Mihesuah, 1996:75-6). These figures account only for tribes that are officially recognized by the United States government. There are many tribes, like the Lumbee in North Carolina who do not have official status.
When possible these photographs should be from the local area. I have received permission from a teacher in my school who is Cherokee to use her as an example. This makes a local connection with which the students can identify. To this I will add photographs of the Mohawk Sky walkers both working on buildings and helping with the World Trade Center rescue efforts. It is important to show Native Americans working, playing and living in the modern world. The goal is to have the students understand that Native Americans are just like other Americans.
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