Objectives
This unit fits perfectly into the eighth grade Language Arts curriculum for several reasons. Students have to view various forms of literature, and here they will be focusing on the elements of a legend and an epic. Point of view will be examined by studying the storytellers of the legends and through the study of the griot, filid, and Biwa recitations - the oral storytellers of West Africa, Ireland and Japan. We will compare and contrast the skills of each type of orator, their cultural significance as well as the content of the stories they relay..
The overarching theme for the unit will be "Origins," beginning with the study of legends, and epics, then moving to the study of storytellers with their relationship to the epic tales. These two types of stories bring us into the world of the "fantastic." The category "fantastic" has several definitions. It can be explained as the moment in a story when one hesitates to consider whether an event happened because of natural causes or supernatural causes. When a character dreams of something un-earthly or feels an overwhelming sense of love or hate, is the state of mind that character reaches a supernatural event, or is it simply explained as something natural? When the line between what one can explain and what one cannot becomes very thin, one finds himself in the category of the fantastic. 3 Then the question arises, who is the "one" who hesitates, the reader or the character? It is implied that the reader must be integrated into the character's world, so the hesitation may stem from inside the integrated world. 4 It is not my intention to have my eighth grade students draw conclusions about whether or not the hesitation must stem from the character or reader, it is just my goal to introduce to them this concept of not quite knowing whether one is being faced with the natural or supernatural. This is a way for them to think about the classification of stories on a much deeper level. The fantastic can also been interpreted as, "a brutal intrusion of mystery into the context of real life." 5 The definitions of a myth and legend fits well into the category of the fantastic, where the hesitation felt by the character and the reader makes them decide "whether or not what they perceive derives from ‘reality' as it exists in the common opinion." 6 The two other categories Todorov analyzes are the uncanny and the marvelous. If the reader or character decide that reality remains intact and a natural explanation can be made, it would be categorized as the "uncanny." In other words, something strange may happen, but a natural solution will happen by the end of the story; legends and myths would not fit well into this classification. 7 If it is decided that the laws of nature cannot provide an explanation for the phenomena, then the story falls into the category of the marvelous, or fairytales.8 I will use these three classifications when teaching the legends and mythical epics as a way to help students differentiate between the marvelous and the fantastic.
Legends and epics are both tales told in oral tradition and are passed down from generation to generation, sometimes dating back over a thousand years. Both are believed to be true by the storyteller, although not all of the historical data is verifiable. Legends often focus on the landscape of the land and it's connection to those who inhabit it and are popular tales of origin. The similarities of legends and epics really exist in the way the story is told through oral tradition, and not in the way they are structured. Myths originate from the past, a very ancient past, and usually tell the story of supposed historical events which serve to unfold the world view of a culture or to explain traditions, beliefs or natural phenomenon; they focus on genealogy, ancestry and the organization of society.9 Epics are long poetic composition that are centered around a hero and are narrated around important achievements or events. 10 Sundiata is a blend of both the myth and the epic because at the end of the story, the griot reveals how the Mali Empire was populated and how jobs were assigned. However, it could also be classified as an epic because it is an example of long standing oral tradition in West Africa. I want my students to be able to understand the differences between a legend , a myth and an epic, while drawing comparisons on the qualities the different types of stories share.
Legends
In order to demonstrate how a legend is an example of oral tradition, I will show two films, The Secret of Roan Inish: Island of the Seals and Into the West. Both are Irish legends that reveal the secrets of the land or the mystery surrounding it. In both stories, the family members reveal secrets to children yearning to learn more about their past. These movies can be shown in their entirety or in clips. If I were to show clips from either movie, it would be when each respective main character listens intently to their wise, old grandfather to learn about the mystery surrounding their past. While both films could be described as children's stories, Into the West is a lot more layered and would not be a great choice for some of my classes simply because it would take a lot more class time to provide background information and historical data. Since my Language Arts classes are tiered into three categories, Standard, Standard Plus, and Honors I have taken this into consideration. I would show Roan Inish in its entirety to my Standard and Standard Plus classes, and possibly clips from Into the West to provide a comparison of storytelling techniques. However, I would do the opposite for my Honors class, showing Into the West in its entirety and clips of Roan Inish. It is quite possible that you could just show clips of the different scenes of oral storytelling in each film if time does not permit a showing of the entire film.
Storytellers
The storytellers I will introduce in this unit are more than just narrators, novelists, historians, or reporters; they are the "master of the art of eloquence," musicians who speak to their listeners through words and music - leading the reader on a journey to the past and reaffirming to a culture the significance of their ancestors..11 These storytellers are highly trained and skilled, more than entertainers, they are an integral part of their society. Ireland, Japan and West Africa share the tradition of oral tradition and their storytellers have many similarities - coupling music with the storytelling. All three cultures use similarly plucked instruments in conjunction with the recitation of stories, although modern Irish storytellers have replaced the harp with pipes. These storytellers not only recite the stories of the ancient past, they also create a connection between spiritual beliefs and the modern world.
By studying these three cultures, my students will be able to draw comparisons between the role of the storyteller in oral tradition, and study the literary elements of each epic tale. My overarching goal is for my students to be able to understand the role of the storyteller within the context of the epic tale, but more importantly understand the importance of the storyteller within the context of a culture. In an effort to always make my curriculum more interesting and meaningful to my students, I have looked for recent performances of the three types of storytellers listed below. A five minute search on www.youtube.com led me to many wonderful and captivating performances that I can show my students throughout the unit. Since we are reading ancient epic tales, I want my students to feel as though the stories are not so far removed and still have relevance and significance in their respective regions today. This is a great way for students to see, listen, and watch performers from across the world practice oral tradition.
Griot
West Africa's storytellers are called griots. A griot by definition is a musician, an entertainer of West Africa whose performances include tribal histories and genealogies. 12 The griots have been a part of African culture for hundreds of years, and their role continues in West Africa today as highly trained, skilled storytellers who use the kora instrument to accompany their epic tales of old Mali.13 The kora is an instrument similar to the harp, but shaped more like a guitar. It is placed between the legs and plucked.14 Griots dedicate years to studying their craft of storytelling as well as mastering the art of the kora in order to become the orators of epic tales like that of Sundiata, founder of the Mali empire. One scholar notes that the oral version of Sundiata's journey should not be viewed as history, but as a portrait of how Africans today view their cultural hero. 15 What role does oral tradition play in West Africa? How does the role of the griot relate to the theme of "Origins" in this unit?
Fili
The Irish equivalent to West Africa's griot is the fili. Fili is best translated as a professional poet in ancient Ireland who preserved genealogies and tales by through oral tradition; filid is the plural form of the word. 16 Filid, as the griots, were poets by birth rite. Whereas griots were advisor to kings, filid had a lot more power in their community and they often tried to enforce their power, as they populated a majority of the aristocratic class, in less than moral ways. Fitting perfectly into the study of the "fantastic" category, filid possessed the power of the lampoon, a poet's curse they often used to belittle man's reputation, or cause physical or mortal harm. 17 The mystery surrounding the power of the filid and the griot, who has the ability to transport himself from the past to the present within certain stories, is one that will be studied in this unit. The West African and Irish storytellers not only possess the great task of communicating the great epic tales of their regions, but also add a fantastic quality to their interpretation.
Generations of Irish studied the skills needed to master the art of memorization and recitation necessary in passing on the oldest Irish tale, Tain Bo Cualnge, or The Cattle-Raid of Cooleyy.18 Hundreds of years ago the filid communicated the vocal narrative of the epic while incorporating the more lyrical sections of the tale through the use of harps. Something similar is done today in Ireland, although the focus has shifted from the vocal narrative to the sole use of music as the vehicle for expression. Most of these spoken recitations have been replaced by an musician's lament to one of the heros of the epic accompanied by uillean pipes, "Irish pipes," which do are softer than the Scottish bagpipes so many of us are used to hearing. Although the uillean pipes are not blown with the mouth, and are just played using one's hands, the musicians are not combining the music of the instruments with the world or lyrics of the epic tale19. This is in stark contrast to the oral tradition of West Africa and Japan today, which both speak or chant the words of the epic in accompaniment with a plucked instrument.
Biwa Recitation
Similarly, in Japan, women and men take on the role of oral storytellers by using the Biwa instrument - a pear-shaped plucked instrument made of wood. The Biwa recitations are used to tell the story of one of Japan's oldest epic tales, , The Heike Monogatari, and are also an integral part of Japanese cultural performance today. When the Biwa was first created in the Seventh Century, blind monks would use it to accompany their religious and epic tales.20 It is used today to accompany the vocal recitation of narratives, using the varying sounds to illustrate different scenes in the story.21 Throughout history, the Biwa has evolved into different variations, all of which accompanied the storytellers who communicate the story of The Hieke.
Epic Tales
I want my students to think about the following questions as we begin the discussion of ancient epic tales. Imagine a world where history is not only taught, but preserved through oral tradition. What kind of skills are needed to recite a story for years and years, without considerably changing the details? What role should that storyteller play in his society? Why do certain cultures rely on mythical tales, not historical data to teach ancestral and geographic history? Knowing that the inevitable question, "How do you know the story is still correct after being passed down for thousands of years?" will arise, I have done some research into the history of the epic tale. In Ireland, Version I of Cattle Raid of Cooley was not recorded until the Twelfth Century. However, recorded episodes of the story were known to exist as early as the Seventh Century, and probably no earlier, because the use of writing did not reach Ireland before the Fifth Century. 22 One scholar has asked the question, "Is it credible that a storytelling tradition could be handed on orally without very great change over such a vast period of time?"23 I had the same question while researching the history of these epic tales and I am confident my students will too. Every eighth grade student has at one time or another been the audience of an "epic" tale of one of their classmates. Isn't it funny how the story seems to develop extreme variations by the end of the school day? My students will need to learn the about the profession of the griot, filid, and Biwa recitation in order to comprehend how a story's details can be preserved for centuries without writing a word of it down on paper. This is what the storytellers had to do, and continue to do today.
The following epic tales date back hundreds of years and are often compared to the Iliad, a tale some of my students are familiar with. Since each epic tale is very lengthy, I have selected an excerpt (except for Sundiata which will be read in its entirety, 84 pages) of each epic to read in class; below is a brief summary of each.
Sundiata: An Epic of Old Mali
I will begin this portion of the unit with the epic tale of Sundiata,It will be coupled with clips from the film Keita which will be discussed more thoroughly in the Strategies section of the unit. The listener travels through Mali and surrounding lands on a journey that ends with the organization of a culture.
The griot who tells the epic tale of Sundiata, King of Mali, begins by explaining his role in the story and in turn, explains the significance of griots to the West African culture. During the days of the old Mali Empire, their role as storyteller was much more than one who communicates - griots were the King's spiritual advisors, and in some ways prophets. D.T. Niane recorded the tale of Sundiata as he listened to Kjeli Mamoudou Kouyate, a griot from the village of Djeliba Koro in Guinea. He begins by emphasizing the significance of his service, "without us the names of kings would vanish into oblivion, we are the memory of mankind; by the spoken word we bring life the deeds and exploits of kings for younger generations."24 The idea that the memory of mankind does not rest in the pages of books, but in the minds, bodies, and spirits of these orators is beautiful and almost incomparable to most Western ways of tracking history. My students might have a difficult time imagining the role of a griot in a modern society, but the griot is very alive in West Africa today, telling the stories of the old Malian Empire and introducing the stories of modern Africa to an audience eager to listen.
A proverb that struck me as I read the Introduction to Sundiata is one that I think my students will be able to identify with, "...the world is old, but the future springs from the past."25 The truth of this proverb is revealed in Sundiata when Balla Fasseke reminds Sundiata and his warriors of their place in history and points out that they will be the ones who decide what to tell future generations about their actions.26 At this point in time, the griot acted as the king's advisor and, in turn, made it possible for the story of Sundiata, founder of the Malian empire, to continue on through generations. A class discussion can center around the notion that the past is definitely linked to the future. For example, at the end of Sundiata, we learn how the Empire was populated, communities were organized, and how jobs and roles were assigned to the men and women of Mali. The griot takes an oath to uphold the integrity of the story, "to teach only what is to be taught and to conceal only what is to be kept concealed."27 This gives the griot some supernatural or spiritual power that is not seen in the narrators of novels or short stories typically read in my class. He serves a more powerful purpose than just a simple storyteller - he brings the story alive and allows the listener to connect to the spirit of his ancestors in an effort to maintain a sense of cultural identity.
Sundiata is a lengthy tale of the rise of the Malian empire, broken into six sections: The Buffalo Woman; Sundiata's Childhood; Sundiata in Exile; Soumaoro Kante, the Sorcerer King; The Return of Sundiata; Sundiata the Ruler of Mali. The story begins with what I believe to be the most intriguing part of the story - the story of the griot, the storyteller himself. While griots today are often musicians who travel and make their money by selling recordings, or simply share the tales of their journeys. But, for hundreds of years, griots were the counselors of kings, at the top of the hierarchal society of Africa.28 The role of the griots were coveted so much because they were the archivists who recorded the practices of the kings and committed to memory the tales that are still told in Western Africa today. Niane reports that the griot can still be found today living as he did in his ancient setting, on the outskirts of town, in the old villages of Mali.29 The story begins with Djeli's words, "Listen to my word, you who want to know; by my mouth you will learn the history of Mali."30 Although the story of Sundiata is significant to my unit because it demonstrates the elements of an epic, I find more importance in the way it is told then what the tale actually holds within itself. The almost magical power of the griot works to enchant the listeners to follow a tale of the greatest king of the old Malian Empire. The griot in this story actually inserts himself into the story several times, a technique rarely used in the short stories I read in my class.
This story will be coupled with Keita: The Heritage of the Griot, a film in which a present-day griot relays the story of Sundiata to a young boy, Mabo, in an effort to educate him about his ancestors. The importance of the griot is best summarized in a quote from the film, "What can you teach your children without knowing your origin."31 Conflicts arise between Mabo's parents, the griot, and the school teacher when the French version of life, where the concept of evolution has to compete with the indigenous version of ancestry passed down by the griots. The struggle between listening to stories passed down from generation to generation without any written form of documentation versus the more Western practice of looking to written documents as validation of an historical event is going to be an inevitable debate throughout this unit. The above-mentioned proverb so clearly states the importance of the griot in the young boy's life. He must blend the stories of his heroic ancestors with the scientific literature of his teacher in order to find a balance between the two worlds. Can the two coexist? Why or why not? What are the implications if only one version is allowed to be taught?
The Exile of the Sons of Unsech and The Exile of Fergus and The Death of the Sons of Unsech and Deidre
This story is part of an extremely lengthy epic, Tain Bo Cualange , or The Cattle Raid of Cooley. This tale is broken up into many sections in an effort to aid the memory of professional storytellers in memorizing the chronology of the events; one of the many stories within the epic is "What Caused the Exile of the Sons of Usnech."32 This epic has been called "the queen of Irish epic tales" with its wild and fascinating sagas.33 Oral tradition in Ireland was practiced for five hundred years during which Tain Bo Cualange was being developed. It is the oldest epic tale of western Europe and its "historical background, social organization, chivalry, mood and thoughts are linked to Celts who battled Caesar.34 I have chosen this story for class because it is brief, only nineteen pages long, and it has the kind of storyline that will keep my students interested - war, the fight over a female, and revenge. Although the men and women of Ulster lived centuries ago, students will be able to identify with the internal and external conflicts faced by the main characters.
The story begins at the house of Feidlimid Mac Daill, poet and story maker to Conchobor the king. Feidlimid's role reminds me of the role of the griot in Sundiata, a man close to the king who relays stories of the past and acts as a spiritual guide. His wife falls ill when the child she is carrying in her womb begins to shriek. Cathbad, the druid, could see into the woman's womb and what he saw was troubling - a beautiful woman who would cause the men of Ulster to fight, jealousy amongst the queens, the exile of Conchobor's son; a woman who would plague the kingdom with sly crime and treachery..35 All of this indicated to him that she was "the seed of evil." 36 Knowing of her ill-fated destiny, many wanted her killed, but Conchobor refused - he wanted her to be raised in solitude until she was ready to become his wife. Deirdre grew into the most beautiful woman Ireland had ever seen. While sequestered, Deirdre had conjured up an alternate plan for her future. While walking one afternoon, she came upon Naisi Mac and instantly fell in love with him. Naisi understood that he could not be with Deirdre because the prophecy stated she would grow to be with king Conchobor . As Deirdre walked past Naisi, she pretended that she did not see him and in the same instance he insulted her. The banter between Deirdre and Naisi is very humorous and is partially why I selected this tale from the long epic. He tells her she is destined for the king, but she reveals she would rather have Naisi. When he rejects her, she clutches her hands around his face and spoke, "Here are shame and mockery on your head if you do not take me with you."."37 Naisi uttered a terrible cry, and leaped with fear to his brothers. They reassured him they would take her to another kingdom, also taking warriors, women and hounds. For many months they traveled through Ireland, being pursued by Conchobor. Then one day the king's steward saw Deirdre in bed lying beside Naisi and the pursuit was finally over. Conchobor killed Naisi and captured Deirdre. She was kept for one year by Conchobor and during the entire year she did not smile, and hardly slept or ate. She was miserable without Nasai. However, Conchobor was ignorant to Deirdre's saddness. He spoke to Deirdre as though to soothe her, but she replied with a very frank response, "Conchobor, are you foolish, or blind/To this tiredness, to woo and renew/Such hate and sorrows as have found/Biding place between us two?"38 When Conchobor realized Deirdre's hate for him, he asked her who she hated more than he. She replied with "Eogan Mac Durthacht." So, out of spite, the king sent her to be with Eogan for a year. 39 After realizing that she could not stand to spend her life with two men she hated, she leaned out of the chariot in which she was riding, and purposely smashed her head on a jutting stone and died. 40
When reading this story we will examine the story elements of character (motivations, internal/external conficts), plot (events that move the story forward), and how this tale fits in to the category of "fantastic" literature. The main characters in this story are facing imprisonment, (in body and mind), jealousy, war battles, and empowerment. Since this story is much shorter than Sundiata, I will use this story to review the five stages of a story: Exposition, Rising Action, Climax, Falling Action, and Resolution. Students will be able to map the five stages of a story using Story Map (see Strategies section below). This story also serves as a great opportunity to review with my students the definition of fantastic as a category of literature. When the druid appears to be able to "see into" the womb of the ill woman, the reader hesitates to determine if he possesses supernatural powers, or if he has a sixth sense - students can also debate whether a "sixth sense" is natural or supernatural. Also, the way Deirdre uses some sort of "super" powers to take command of Naisi leads the reader to determine what, if any, supernatural powers she possesses. While the rest of the story seems fairly realistic, the mysterious powers possessed by the druid and Deirdre clearly mark this epic tale of the category fantastic.
The Hieke Monogatari
I selected this section of the Tale of the Heike, because it is short enough to read in one or two class periods and contains a storyline that involves materialism, wealth, jealousy, and humility. While Sundiata and The Exile of the Sons of Usnech are mostly tales of external conflicts, students will now be introduced a very different kind of epic tale. The Japanese story I selected depicts characters whose internal conflict drive most of the plot events. The study of all three stories will create great activities will allow students to compare and contrast the way different cultures construct their stories. I could not find a word for Japanese oral storytellers comparable to that of the griot or the filid. However, recitations of the Tales of the Heike are still very much a part of Japanese culture today.
This tale begins with a comparison of Prince Taira-no-Ason Kiyomori, the Lay-priest of Rokuhara, to rulers of many other far-off countries - of which none compare. Kiyomori was blessed with the great riches of his life because of an experience he had while on a religious pilgrimage, and the happiness and riches followed his family for generations. Kiyomori overcame a near-death illness and even after his retirement from the world, he did not put an end to the lavish lifestyle to which he was so accustomed. Kiyomori was not a greedy man, and so he shared his prosperity with those around him. He indulged in the entertainment of two Shirabyoshi (the prototype of the modern Geisha). The two sisters, Gio (who danced for and was closest to Kiyomori) and Ginyo were both very skilled at their craft and as a result, were very fortunate enough to build a home for their mother. Three years after Gio started dancing for Kiyomori, another Shirabyoshi, Hotoke Gozen came to his house - uninvited. At first, Kiyomori told her to depart, but Gio asked if she could stay, feeling bad for the girl who was rejected. Gio regrets her decisioin, because Kiyomori falls for the beauty and dancing of Hotoke and sends Gio away. Gio was so saddened by her time away from Kiyomori and embarrassed by her departure, she refused to answer Kiyomori's several messages. However, after much prodding by her mother, Gio returns to the palace only to leave in tears again. She was asked to comfort Hotoke and amuse her out of loneliness. Distraught and embarrassed by this second-class treatment by Kiyomori, Gio retreats to her home where she and her sister make a pact to take their lives. When their mother realizes what her daughters have planned, she tells them that sadness on earth is just a temporary condition. Both daughters decide to become nuns and retreat from society, and later their mother follows. One night, Hotoke appears at their house and surprises Gio with remorse. Hotoke feels guilty for showing up uninvited at Kiyomori's palace years ago and as a result, taking Gio's place. Hotoke confesses, "Now in consequence of this I am overwhelmed with shame and conscience stricken. When I saw you go away I felt it to be through my fault and could not feel at all happy." happy."41 Hotoke shames herself into a life of recluse as a nun with the three other women. Gio is shocked that her rival admitted to feelings of such shame, because when Hotoke first arrived at the palace, she felt shameful for feeling such spite for Hotoke's initial happiness. Gio feels as though she is in a "virtuous state of enlighenment" after she realizes that Hotoke has given up her life to become a nun too. The tale ends with the four women retreating from society together, obtaining their desire for rebirth. In the register of the temple the honorable spirits of the four are found enshrined. 42
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