Effective Stances – Strategies for Excellence
I offer a few strategies that have, in my own practices, proven to be effective in facilitating student growth. The main strategy for this unit, of course, is journal-writing about which much has already been said. Still, more explanation follows. Other strategies include work-shopping student paragraphs and imitating great writers and speakers, which is also part of the daily journal-writings. These strategies reinforce one another and cover a vast array of writing and reading techniques.
The TAO Method of Journal-Writing
The TAO Method is a daily, structured writing practice that requires students to engage in thinking through three modes of writing: theorization, association and observation. Theorize, the first section, is the more formal of the three. Its primary concern is having students write short expositions or arguments about current readings (i.e. Lord of the Flies) as prompted by a thematically related poem or quote at the start of each class. The second section, Associate, is about expanding their horizons, making new connections to meaning via imitating other writers and acquiring new and relevant words for their vocabulary. The third and more personal section, Observe, directs students to a fuller awareness of their world by having them describe and narrate a variety of personal perceptions of their life experiences. All three parts comprise the daily journal-writings.
Theorize: At the heart of this section is the principle that every student must develop their own voice and come to terms with their ways of seeing and, in particular, their ways of perceiving and asserting truths. For this section, which includes quizzes, I teach students to write about the deepest truth(s) they can perceive between the daily prompt and the current readings and class discussions. Most often, I briefly discuss the prompt, a poem or quote, with the students, leading them to see ways in which the prompt connects to the current reading or discussion topic, plus any class activities and school or world news. Everything potentially connects. But sometimes I make them work out the connections on their own or as a class without my assistance. I quiz them the same way.
For quizzes, students must first write a one sentence summary statement of a particular, assigned reading. Their summary statement must include key elements of the reading. After their summary statement, students write a best paragraph that asserts the deepest truth(s) they can perceive from the readings. Doing quizzes in this manner allows students to develop their voice, prove their abilities and, ultimately, be responsible for their own learning. It also is a direct practice of exposition and argument. Every student becomes accountable to his or her own estimate of truth, and perhaps become more open to other people's perspectives. This process further, and more importantly, inverts traditional quizzes that likely only reveal the teacher's perceptions, interests and concerns. Quizzes are written in section one of the daily journal-writings. They can start with or without a prompt. See Classroom Activities below for Class Quizzes.
Associate: The second section is more practical in its approach. It is basically the section for copying excerpts of great writings, as well as sections from a dictionary or thesaurus that address the finding and usage of the right word. Anything goes for this section, as long as it thematically relates or provides further and particular study. I might include scientific or biographical writings, and descriptive writings of art. I find Sister Wendy's writings of famous works of art quite illuminating. I will likely also include some directions for correct grammar usage but in response to the problems in student writings. Whatever is to be copied must be manageable in length. It should only take 10-15 minutes to copy into the journal, and it can be done in class or for homework.
Observe: The third section is where students get to explore their personal, social and school issues to find their selves and determine what makes them who they are and why. Plutarch, the ancient Greek historian and essayist, said, "In words are seen the state of mind and character and disposition of the speaker." A major purpose, for this section, is that students determine their own states of mind, their own character and dispositions as evidenced in their writings. I want them to realize their ways of seeing their selves and others in particular life circumstances. One day they may write about family dynamics and who is most persuasive in their household, and why. Another day, they might assume the mindset of a family member and try to reason as they do. This section will follow sections 1 and 2 thematically. Prompts for Observe will vary accordingly, allowing for students to freely adjust any prompt to their way of seeing as long as they maintain the prescribed standards (asserting deepest truths) for journal-writing. Still, the prompts will relate to class readings and discussions, and particular content instruction such as rhetoric and persuasion.
Frames and Conceptual Metaphors
During the establishment of the journals, I will instruct students about the ideas of framing and conceptual metaphors, as explicated by George Lakoff in his on-line book, Thinking points. Briefly, framing is the way words construct argument, ex. tax relief is framed by relief, implying that taxes are a burden. Lakoff explains that the argument for taxes can be reframed by contextualizing them as dues for being a citizen in a democratic society/country. But framing also includes the way we conceive. They are, according to Lakoff, "mental structures that allow human beings to understand reality—and sometimes to create what we take to be reality." 15 Conceptual metaphors are the ways in which our brains perceive ideas and beliefs. He uses the example of up = good, down = bad. Neither is necessarily true but we base meaning and understanding upon their concepts. Generally speaking, we hear or believe that Heaven is up and Hell is down. Our ways of perceiving are rampant with conceptual metaphors. Thus, making our use of them explicit to students and having them discover conceptual metaphors in their own writing is invaluable and exciting, and the ramifications of understanding them in context of, and applying them towards, the art of rhetoric is immeasurable.
Four Directives for Journal-Writingss
Finally, it is important to address four important directives that have arisen from assessing the practice of journal-writing. The first is creating thematic relevance - make the journal components (prompts, class-work, homework) thematically relevant to the current text and classroom discussions/activities. The second directive is establishing progressive standards - increase the standards of academic excellence as the journal writing progresses through the unit/year. Making full inclusiveness is the third directive - devise the journals so as to include as much class and home work possible, i.e. vocabulary, text-copying, personal reflections and descriptive narratives, etc. The fourth is keeping manageable checks - hold the students accountable by establishing a rigorous (bi-monthly) and impromptu (daily) schedule of checks. The latter directive must also serve the teacher because of the workload. For thematic relevance, I suggest that teachers search for prompts that address a particular aspect of persuasion as it relates to the studied text, i.e. "Character / may almost be called / the most effective means / of persuasion." (line breaks are my own) "– Aristotle (384-322 BCE). His words relate to when they boys, in Lord of the Flies, are deciding whom should be chief: "'I ought to be chief,' said Jack with simple arrogance, 'because I'm chapter chorister and head boy. I can sing C sharp.'" 16 From this follows a discussion of character: what words in the text create evidence of his, and what are the characteristics of a good chief? Is he persuasive? For progressive standards of excellence, I have 2-3 students read a recent selection from their responses aloud to the class, and then I give them direct feedback (always praise, first, then constructive criticism) regarding anything related to their writing (diction, grammar, syntax, etc.), their ideas (point of view, logic, comprehension, etc.) and their content (contextualization, accuracy, and execution, etc.), etc. After this concise interchange, all the students must write, at the top of the next journal page, a brief statement of intent regarding what they will improve and/or practice in the next journal response. Statements of intent are also derived from direct instruction. As the year progresses, so do my expectations for their writings, their persuasions and their assertions of truth. For full inclusiveness of class and home work, I incorporate quizzes, new vocabulary, copying of texts, etc. For example, I require that students copy a portion of text, paragraph length, considered masterful or classic. It also must be thematically related to the prompt, the texts and/or content instruction and class discussion, i.e. an excerpt about self-control and savagery in ancient Rome, from Edith Hamilton's The Roman Way 17 is thematically related to Aristotle's quote on character. F–or the third section of the journal, Observe, students can write about a time they experienced, witnessed or perpetrated savagery. For establishing rigorous and impromptu, manageable checks (I recommend credit/non-credit), collect the scores of the journals at the completion of every 10 (+/-, as you see fit, and having the students tally/score each other's work for credit), mark or stamp, at random (and per class) each day, various student's previous day's journal to keep them accountable (no work = no credit, or partial credit when made-up), and read about 15 daily writes per day for quality checks and to write concise and meaningful remarks. It will take time to develop all these directives and habits (and they can be an exhausting endeavor, especially with finding prompts and excerpts), but they produce amazing results in the student's writings!
A bit more regarding how I structure the journal: for writing instruction, which I believe must be organic and not formulaic (i.e. 5-paragraph essay), I teach students the value of fluency in expressing one's ideas, of form for shaping those ideas into clear and cohesive structures, and of correctness in complying with 'rules' of grammar and spelling, etc. Fluency is the most important, though form sometimes trumps it, and correctness is a matter of editing. For the first third of the entire daily journals, fluency is primary. Form and correctness are taught, but fluency reigns. For the second third of the year, form is emphasized, though fluency is not deemphasized. By the final third of all the journals, correctness is required for credit.
Paragraph Packets
Every few weeks, I have my students email to me a best paragraph they have recently written, usually for a draft of an essay. I copy and paste each students paragraph into one document, removing their names for anonymity and numbering the paragraphs for easy reference. To save myself some time, I insist that students make their paragraphs part of the email text and not an attachment, otherwise I double my time in opening and closing documents. Once I have all the paragraphs (late paragraphs can be added as an addendum), I select all and adjust them to the font and line-spacing (1.5 or 2, depending) that I prefer, allowing space for commenting and editing. For economy, I shrink the font and the margins of the document to a minimum, turn the layout to landscape, and use the front and back of the paper to make a packet, and class set, of each class's paragraphs. These packets become a workbook for writing and editing, and developing thought. And the paragraphs are theirs (not prefabricated)! For credit, students must fully participate in taking notes and editing all the paragraphs, mostly in class but also for homework. There are unlimited assignments that can be derived from these packets. Here are a few: Have students practice sentence combining; work with dictionaries and thesauruses to improve diction and practice using the right word; edit, revise and improve paragraphs, paying special attention to any issues of fluency, form and correctness, etc.
I have a protocol that I teach to my students, and regularly repeat to them as needed. I insist that paragraphs remain anonymous and that no one is to guess or reveal an a paragraph's author. It is about establishing safety for all students. We work together on any paragraph they choose. After the primary rule is understood, the next is that we always praise a writer first, and genuinely, for anything they have done well. For struggling writers, especially for English-language learners, I praise them for taking great strides in learning a second or third language. This becomes an opportunity for discussing all levels of writing as they are just that, and can and will be improved upon. After sufficient praise, usually good spelling or ideas, we begin providing constructive criticism to improve the fluency, form and/or correctness of the paragraph. As issues in the paragraphs reveal themselves, the class adds to a list of things to be mindful of and make better, for their essays and in their journals, too. Some common issues in student writing are shifts in train-of-thought, lack of development, ambiguity or vagueness, spelling and syntax errors, and factual mistakes. In this process, students become teachers.
Imitating Great Authors – i.e. Abraham Lincoln
The journals already establish the practice of imitating authors but this strategy is augmented with a case study of Lincoln's two most effective and famous speeches, his Gettysburg and the 2 nd Inaugural Addresses, plus several excerpts from other speeches provided in Garry Wills' excellent book, Lincoln at Gettysburg – the Words that Remade America. We will pay special attention to Lincoln's development of style. For the 2 nd Inaugural Address, I refer to Ronald C. White's book, Lincoln's Greatest Speech – The Second Inaugural. Part of imitating an author is simply copying their work. I have my students copy the Gettysburg Address into their journals, and also memorize it. Copying the 2 nd Inaugural will be an extended assignment, or chunked for the journal. The second step, after copying, is to have students adapt the Gettysburg Address, line by line, into an Address for Ralph and Jack, and the other boys, in Lord of the Flies. Their division into groups is analogous, for this exercise, to the division of states in the Civil War. Students will work in groups for this exercise, and can assume the voice of an adult speaking to the boys, like Lincoln spoke to the people in Gettysburg. This adaptation is a precursor to students then writing their own, original Address. After the copying of the 2 nd Inaugural speech, students will also then develop a second Address, modeled on Lincoln's, where they assume the role of a student-leader, teacher or administrator trying to unify the divided boys and bring about healing and forgiveness once they have returned home. The act of copying or imitating great authors is based on the principle of emulation, where skills and insights are assumed through close and repeated inspection of another's work. Varying the works, i.e. copying sections of Lord of the Flies, help students to realize how workable are words and sentence structures, that they too can, through emulation and practice, begin to shape words their own way, for their own style.
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