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The first step in helping students make the connection between their ideas about democracy and American influence in global democratic movements is to allow them the opportunity to define the essential elements that make our political system unique. This is accomplished by allowing students to read the ideological and procedural basis for our country, such as the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution, in addition to primary source excerpts from the political, economic, and social realms of American Society. The next part of understanding the spread of democracy is in the westward expansion of U.S. boarders during the ideological period known as Manifest Destiny—where the expansion of our country to include fifty diverse states, while excluding Native Americans, added a level of complexity to the application of the democratic process. Finally, once the U.S. ceased the expansion of borders, it began to export ideas of democracy in various ways around the globe. While one could argue that some of the exportation of democratic ideas occurs by happenstance, there is also the argument to be presented that the U.S. employs various methods of disseminating American Democracy: from ideological, political, and/or economic influence to force.
Building a Unique Democracy
The basic tenants of American Democracy were created during, and shortly after, the American Revolution of 1776. Documents such as the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution and the Bill of Rights contain the most basic beliefs that form the foundation for the unique form of democracy that exists in the United States today. Freedom, equality and popular sovereignty are ideas that Americans believe to be basic rights given to every citizen and that our democratic government was created to protect
The Declaration of Independence provides an idealistic goal for our governmental system to achieve. Though it was designed as a statement of explanation for the separation of the colonies from Great Britain and not as a legal document, it enumerates American principles of the equality of all men, rights given at birth, and the belief that government is formed by the people to protect those rights. Jefferson was influenced by John Locke in his explanation of the social contract theory between the government and the people, of what he defines as "inalienable rights."
We hold these truths to be self-evident: That all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; that, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed… 1
It is important to note that one key difference between Locke and Jefferson is the definition of rights given by birth. Locke believes that natural rights are given by God and included life, liberty and property; whereas, Jefferson writes that inalienable rights are given by a Creator and include life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. A discussion of the similarities and differences between the nature and inclusion of specific rights is important in creating a basic idea of what Jefferson and the other Revolutionaries were trying to achieve.
Whereas the Declaration of Independence is the ideological basis for the political system of the United States, the Constitution is the living document by which we actively govern the country. The basis for the powers of the federal government is found in the Preamble:
We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. 2
This document, written in 1787, creates a federalist system that combines designated powers of the federal government with specific powers of state governments. The document provides the tools and procedures that the federal government will use to protect freedom and equality from threats both domestic and foreign.
The issue of individual rights presented itself during the Constitutional Convention. This debate between The Federalists, who supported the Constitution as it was written, led by Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, and The Anti-Federalists, who wanted to include a Bill of Rights that offered protection from the government, caused the first fraction of political ideology and a two party system. This debate resulted in the addition of the Bill of Rights, the first ten Amendments to the Constitution that guarantee and spell out individual rights and protections from the federal government. Of these amendments, the First Amendment contains the most significant and basic concepts of political rights and freedoms:
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. 3
Together, these Revolutionary documents form the basis for American Democracy, yet allow for adaptation and changes to maintain relevance and growth as the U.S. progresses. Three main elements emerge as the core for these beliefs: the protection of rights and freedoms by and from the federal government, public elections, and a two party political system. These are the basic ideas of American Democracy that were transported westward during the country's expansion and that are exported beyond our borders in the modern era.
Expansion of Borders
The desire for westward expansion began even before the thirteen colonies became the United States of America. In a very short time the U.S. had increased its size to stretch from the original Atlantic States, all the way to the Pacific Ocean. The original 13 colonies stretched from Maine to Georgia but as the American Revolution came to a close, the Treaty of Paris in 1783 gave lands that lay east of the Mississippi to the United States as well. Borders expanded again in 1803 with President Jefferson's purchase of the Louisiana Territory, effectively doubling the size of the United States. Finally, in less than ten years from 1845 to 1853, the U.S. gained territory from Texas to California. There were many causes for westward expansion including the desire for property ownership, security, economic opportunity and the growth of the railroads. Manifest Destiny and the Monroe Doctrine provided the incentive for expansion and the desire for protection of newly created national borders.
Manifest Destiny
During the 19 th century there was an underlying belief that the United States was fated to expand its territory and spread democracy. This belief is echoed from the point when Jefferson completed the Louisiana Purchase doubling the size of the U.S. which he called "the Empire of Liberty." This belief was later called Manifest Destiny. The concept of Manifest Destiny is the belief that U.S. expansion was divinely ordained. It helped to justify the growth and influence of pioneers moving westward into territory occupied and controlled by Mexico and Native Americans. The phrase Manifest Destiny was coined by an American columnist, named John O'Sullivan, attempting to justify the annexation of Texas in 1845:
The far-reaching, the boundless future, will be the era of American greatness. In its magnificent domain of space and time, the nation of many nations is destined to manifest to mankind the excellence of divine principles; to establish on earth the noblest temple ever dedicated to the worship of the Most High — the Sacred and the True. Its floor shall be a hemisphere — its roof the firmament of the star-studded heavens, and its congregation a Union of many Republics, comprising hundreds of happy millions, calling, owning no man master, but governed by God's natural and moral law of equality, the law of brotherhood — of "peace and good will amongst men." 4
The Jacksonian Era, global economic growth, and the Second Great Awakening all fueled American movement westward. After Manifest Destiny spread American ideals across the North American continent, the next logical step was to secure those beliefs from any country which posed a threat.
Monroe Doctrine
President Monroe's annual address to Congress in 1823 contained a message to all European powers that would later be known as The Monroe Doctrine. It served as a statement of intent, to all who would interfere in the Western Hemisphere, that the United States was the dominant power in the area and would not tolerate influence of any kind by other imperialistic powers. It also served as further notice of our independence and asserted:
…as a principle in which the rights and interests of the United States are involved, that the American continents, by the free and independent condition which they have assumed and maintain, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers… 5
Manifest Destiny and the Monroe Doctrine effectively established the United States' borders across the North American continent, and together, they helped establish us as the most powerful entity in the Western Hemisphere. Though the Monroe Doctrine warned outside influences not to interfere with U.S. affairs, there was only an implied consequence. To ensure protection, an additional statement of international policy toward perceived threats was necessary, and it came from President Theodore Roosevelt.
Roosevelt Corollary
Reinforcement to the protection of American superiority in the Monroe Doctrine came with the Roosevelt Corollary. President Theodore Roosevelt made it clear that the United States would be justified in taking action, if intervention in southern countries became necessary, for the protection of the U.S. and for the sake of stability and order. The Corollary came as a result of an economic crisis in the Dominican Republic that threatened to instigate European creditors to take action in the Americas. In this address, Roosevelt spoke to the nations of South and Central America, as well as European countries, who might consider any kind of aggression:
Chronic wrongdoing, or an impotence which results in a general loosening of the ties of civilized society [however], may in America, as elsewhere, ultimately require intervention by some civilized nation, and in the Western Hemisphere the adherence of the United States to the Monroe Doctrine may force the United States, however reluctantly, in flagrant cases of such wrongdoing or impotence, to the exercise of an international police power... 6
This passage delineates the lengths to which the U.S. was willing to go to secure peace and minimize any threat to homeland security, long before the Department of Homeland Security was established as a part of the Cabinet. Together, The Monroe Doctrine and the Roosevelt Corollary established the United States as the Supreme authority and ideology in the Western Hemisphere. Similar to using Manifest Destiny to justify westward expansion, successive Presidents would use Roosevelt's Corollary to justify intervention in the countries of Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Cuba, Nicaragua and Mexico. This ideological body of work creates the basis, in this century, for American influence in exporting democracy globally for the good of mankind, perhaps especially in the western hemisphere.
Exporting American Democracy Beyond Borders
In the past 60 years, the world has seen a growing trend of interdependence, transitions toward a global economy, and an increase in the influence of the 'powerful' countries. The U.S., being one of those powerful countries, has involved itself in the affairs of many other countries in order to stimulate economic growth, and promote ideas of freedom and democracy. In response to the Cold War, and the threat of the spread of Communism, President Truman established a policy of Containment that helped to solidify support in the ideological war for democracy by increasing and supporting military intervention into countries that requested help in resisting communist influence. The United States goal was to promote the basic tenants of American democracy in the form of free elections, a multi-party system, and delineating and protecting individual rights. The following excerpt from the Truman Doctrine expresses the belief that democracy must be promoted to be protected:
The seeds of totalitarian regimes are nurtured by misery and want. They spread and grow in the evil soil of poverty and strife. They reach their full growth when the hope of a people for a better life has died. We must keep that hope alive. The free peoples of the world look to us for support in maintaining their freedoms. If we falter in our leadership, we may endanger the peace of the world — and we shall surely endanger the welfare of our own nation. 7
This foreign policy created a basis for U.S. influence and intervention across Asia, Africa, Europe and South America. The United States has used three major types of international policies since World War II to influence global politics: nation building, support of political factions during internal conflict, and the use of economic sanctions. These policies have had varying degrees of success and it remains to be seen if the benefits will outweigh the cost.
Nation Building
Arguably the most direct method for transplanting the American democratic system in another country is to become directly involved in building new governments, a process known today as nation building. The U.S. has engaged in over sixteen instances of nation building around the world. Of these very few were able to sustain a democracy a decade later. There are three reasons identified in determining the success of nation building endeavors. The first factors are the internal characteristics of the target nation. This factor includes characteristics like previous experience with democracy, no major division of inequality and a strong national identity. The second factor is the union of "geopolitical" interests or similar interests between the majority of the public in the target nation and the interests of the occupying force. The final factor is a strong commitment to economic development. 8
The model for the success of American Democracy outside the U.S. was the rebuilding of Japan after World War II. General Douglas MacArthur took almost complete control of Japan for the United States and the Japanese people seemed open to the idea of democracy. In addition, they had a very strong sense of nationalism and desired further economic development. Once the Cold War began, Japan's success was important, not just as proof that the American system worked, but also as an important Asian foothold in an area that was fighting Communism. Japan's continued economic and democratic success stands as evidence that the American model can work, and it has created a powerful global ally.
Whereas Japan is a model for success of U.S. nation building, many more countries failed to maintain democracies. In the instances where nation building has failed, the culprits are usually: deep-seated inequalities and division(s) within society that prevent the ability to create an equality-based government, US alignment with unpopular political elites, and/or a lack of structure to facilitate the effective use of economic assistance.
In terms of financial cost, nation building in a country with a population of approximately five million can range from 1.5 billion dollars for light peace keeping to 15 billion dollars for heavy peace keeping each year. 9 For example, the US was involved in nation building in Haiti on two different occasions. The first instance came in 1915 and lasted nineteen years; however, the second instance, which occurred in 1994, only lasted two years. Ultimately, both attempts at creating a democracy in Haiti were unsuccessful, with an estimated cost between 31.5 and 315 billion dollars.
Support of Political Factions
In countries where a government already exists in a weakened state or there is a real possibility of a change in political power, the United States often chooses to support one political faction over another in order to promote a more democratic policy and in an attempt to contain communism. By engaging in this policy the U.S. hopes to create an ally and promote the basic premises of democracy through persuasion. U.S. support comes in a variety of forms that may include economic packages, goods or political and military training. Like nation building, this policy has seen mixed successes.
In the late 1970's and 1980's, the United States offered financial aid to the Sandinistas in Nicaragua to minimize the threat of the Soviet Union and Cuba influence. When it was clear that Nicaragua favored Soviet support, President Reagan revoked aid to the country and began to support the Contras, a rival political faction in hopes that they would regain control of the country. After U.S. legislation stopped funding to the Contras, President Reagan's administration began funding them secretly using proceeds from arms sales to Tran leading to the Iran-Contra Affair in 1986. Ultimately a cease-fire was negotiated and a free election was held where the Sandinistas were victorious.
In the 1950's, the United States backed a coup of the Iranian Government and the Shah of Iran Mohammad Reza. It turned out that though the Shah was pro-Westernization, he made changes in a way that violated basic human rights, thus causing an Islamic revolution and anti-American resentment that resulted in the Tehran hostage crisis in 1979. Similarly, in the Iran-Iraq War of 1979, the United States supported Saddam Hussein. While many Americans have forgotten this fact, they became keenly aware that he turned out to be a dictator concerned only with expansion of power at the expense of individual rights and the sovereignty of other nations. Evidence of this can be found in his invasion of Kuwait in 1990, as well as a long list of human rights violations, including continued attacks on Kurdish peoples beginning in 1988. It was not until 2003 that joint forces were able to depose Hussein. Eventually, Hussein was put to trial, found guilty of crimes against humanity, and put to death. History is currently being written, as this round of spreading democracy is still in its infancy, and we have no way of knowing which category it will fall under, ultimately.
Economic Sanctions
A less invasive form of global American influence, in promoting security and democracy, is the application of economic sanctions. The U.S. institutes sanctions on countries which engage in activities that pose a threat to our country or its beliefs. Typical sanctions are those that limit, restrict or prohibit trade. Typical offenses for which sanctions are instituted are for drug trafficking, support of terroristic activity, and human rights abuses. The idea behind this procedure is to guide global policy in order to promote American ideals, by providing negative economic incentives. Economic sanctions can include but are not limited to: trade barriers, tariffs, import and export duties, quotas or embargos.
International economic sanctions are partially credited with the end of Apartheid in South Africa. Sanctions force a country to become more self-sufficient in an interdependent global economy and drive up the costs of goods and production. Though there are few examples of extremely successful political changes contributed to this type of policy, it is a very diplomatic and non-violent measure to attempt to facilitate change.
Cuba is an example of one the longest lasting U.S. economic sanctions, as well as one of the most easily recognized, and most talked about. In the last presidential election, now President Barack Obama even made campaign promises regarding Cuba, thus renewing interest and discussion on the embargo. Beginning in the 1960's, this trade embargo was enacted because Cuba refused to abandon communism and make progress toward a more democratic process. The sanction policy in this instance has failed to produce any democratic changes thus far and is still in effect, though President Obama did ease restrictions and some of the sanctions. Long lasting embargos that have failed to make any progress are not uncommon. Approximately two thirds of economic sanctions fail to see any improvement in their policy goals. 1 0
Closing
The United States has spent millions of dollars and two hundred years spreading its own unique form of democracy, first across North America and then across the globe. Outside U.S. borders, this democracy has met with varied success. The entire world is currently fixated on the success or failure of democracy in Iraq and Afghanistan, our current nation building experiments, with news stations providing each gory detail 24 hours a day. Though, arguably, the coverage is spreading awareness, and in turn moving others to action.
The last year has seen a spread of grassroots movements to overthrow dictatorial governments in North Africa and the Middle East. These movements exist in countries like Egypt, Libya and Tunisia and are also seeing widespread media coverage. They seem to be fueled by educated factions and the spread of ideas and information made open and accessible to many, via the Internet and other electronic media. Those coordinating these movements, as well as those participating, can now see the support they have from the U.S., and it would appear that the cheerleading is working. The next test in exporting in the idea of America will be the ability of these countries to maintain democratic governments that protect individual rights, allow for open and free voting, and consist of a strong party system.
The United States must revisit its foreign policy as it relates to promoting democracy around the world to determine if the benefit of protecting democracy externally is worth the cost to US taxpayer and lives of American soldiers. Is democracy the best form of government for every country? Should everyone have freedom to vote for their political leadership? Should the spread and protection of democracy be the responsibility of the U.S. alone? Will promoting global democratic movements ensure the safety of American democracy? Is there a better way?
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