The American Presidency

Background Information for Unit

From their observations of human behavior, the ancient Greeks theorized that humans are, at their core, rational beings; when making decisions, humans consciously analyze all aspects of the matter before coming to a rational conclusion. Plato theorized the mind was divided into two separate spheres. The soul, he said, was conflicted between reason and emotion. ⁵⁷ Pleasures, emotions and senses were necessary evils but man should always strive to be governed by reason. In Timaeus Plato pronounced that a man, who was able to master his emotions and live a life of reason and justice, would be reborn into a "celestial heaven of eternal happiness." ⁵⁸ The famous French philosopher, Rene' Descartes maintained that reason could be utilized to keep the senses, primarily emotion, in their proper place. ⁵⁹ During the Renaissance, European thinkers rediscovered the philosophical work of the ancient Greeks.

Founding Fathers and the Enlightenment

The Founding Fathers predicated our deliberative democracy on the fact that man is capable of keeping emotion in perspective to make rational decisions. Thomas Jefferson stated on many occasions that reason and sentiment should operate like independent co–rulers. ⁶⁰ Emphasizing reason over emotion has been the bedrock of American political philosophy; every native born American, from a very young age, is indoctrinated with the belief that one of their duties as a citizen is to strive to make reasoned decisions.

Reason and the Founding Fathers

In a letter to George Mason in 1791, Thomas Jefferson wrote, "My hope [is] that we have not labored in vain, and that our experiment will still prove that men can be governed by reason." ⁶¹ Jefferson, along with Benjamin Franklin, John Adams and Alexander Hamilton fashioned themselves philosophical, Enlightenment type thinkers with a dispassionate view of the mind. ⁶² "Knowledge, the Enlightenment thinkers saw, could set men and women free. Reason could come to the rescue of the oppressed." ⁶³ The founders believed themselves to be making a social contract with the people, creating a just society for a rational populous. ⁶⁴ They believed that by creating a deliberative democracy, verses a direct democracy, the citizenry could reason, or deliberate through their representatives. ⁶⁵ Creating a deliberate democracy was a conscious choice on the part of the founding Fathers. ⁶⁶ The general populace, they believed, did not have the time or inclination to truly devote to "cool and sedate reflection". ⁶⁷ Their representatives would have the necessary time.

Emotion and the Founding Fathers

While the Founding Fathers were Enlightenment thinkers and brain construction research did not exist, it is clear the Founding Fathers understood that reasonable decisions could be impeded by passions. It was September 1787. The new Constitution had been sent to the states for ratification. Those opposed to the Constitution (now known as Anti–Federalists) had begun writing essays reproaching the new plan of government. In an effort to thwart the efforts of the Anti–Federalists, Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison began writing their own series of essays (known as the Federalist Papers) promoting ratification of this new Constitution. In Federalist #1, Alexander Hamilton says:

"Happy will it be if our choice should be directed by a judicious estimate of our true interests, unperplexed and unbiased by considerations not connected with the public good. But this is a thing more ardently to be wished than seriously to be expected. The plan offered to our deliberations affects too many particular interests, innovates upon too many local institutions, not to involve in its discussion a variety of objects foreign to its merits, and of views, passions and prejudices little favorable to the discovery of truth." ⁶⁸

In other words, it would be ideal if people could put aside their personal considerations in favor of the public good. However, Alexander Hamilton realized that this decision is too large in scope not to make allowances for emotion.

Interestingly, in Federalist #37 James Madison attempts to answer questions about how the Constitutional Conventioneers came to propose the type of government proposed in the Constitution. In the second paragraph, he concedes that as part of normal "human affairs", emotions can run high; this was expected. However, what Madison is particularly addressing is that those opposed had predetermined to censure and condemn the new Constitution; they were not open–minded, were not allowing themselves to see reason in the proposed new government ." ⁶⁹ Madison concedes that of course the constitutional plan will have errors because it was created after all by a man who is by his very nature fallible. Madison contends that the errors themselves can be corrected through reasonable deliberation. More importantly, Madison asserts that the purpose of the Convention was so great that the conventioneers were able to forgo the "influence of party animosities…most apt to contaminate their proceedings" ⁷⁰ in favor of the greater good. In other words, emotion was a visceral, unconscious reaction inherent in all men, but reason was a deliberate, conscious choice.