Background Information
The Development of Government
Some Americans believe that government plays too large of a role in our lives; others argue it's not enough. As stated in the book Understanding American Government, "Some people have the impression that the government grows of its own accord. Usually government grows because citizens or interest groups want it to do more. As crises emerge or society changes, new problems surface and people ask the government to do more to respond to it." Sometimes the government grows to assist in stabilizing the economy or to protect the national security of the country. Other times the growth of government stems from political ideologies. So how did governments evolve to the point at which we are in 2013? 5 To understand how we arrived at the governments we know of today, we should begin by studying a time without government.
Encyclopedia Britannica is used widely in my school district because it can be used to search for materials at a variety of reading levels. The information in the next four paragraphs was obtained from the Britannica Academic Encyclopedia entry "Government." The entry explains how the progress toward the complex governments around the world today took thousands of years. I try to think of this process as a natural response to the needs of growing populations. The first "political structure" was the nomadic hunter-gatherer family when the parents held the responsibility for the feeding and security of their children. As the children grew, they developed the skills to care for themselves and eventually left the family unit to start their own. The relationship between parents and their grown child became voluntary as the parents were no longer solely responsible for the care of their grown child. This voluntary association allowed for different relationships to form outside of just the family unit. With technological advancements in farming, nomadic groups created permanent settlements, villages, with growing populations.
As economic activities developed in villages, a need for leadership outside of the family unit was required. The earliest village leaders were usually male, elder, religious figures who were believed to have obtained leadership status from the gods or a higher being. Leadership of the village usually took place at town hall meetings with discussions taking place between village elders and a village council or leader. The laws were typically passed from leader to subject orally and tended to change over time based on the needs of the group. Resource management became critical in sustaining a growing population and producing reserves of crops.
Small villages grew into cities and a more extensive form of governance was needed. This led to the creation of various governmental positions and leadership roles. As the city developed increasing divisions of labor, societies became more complex. With specialization of labor, advanced systems of exchange came into existence. People traded with other citizens living within close proximity. With greater transportation technology, economic activities became more abundant, and people were able to trade with other cities and villages. As villages obtained more resources, the threat of attack from outside nomadic groups and cities became a major concern. Wars broke out as groups battled in a desire to obtain greater amounts of resources. With protection being a crucial component of a functioning city, armies became an integral piece of society. The military played a critical role by intervening when barbarians attacked, when civil wars erupted, and when larger wars broke out. Eventually military leaders became revered as the most important members of society and began to hold leadership positions.
Cities grew into larger societies and eventually into civilizations. Larger populations necessitated a greater specialization of labor and leadership. This specialization eventually led to a division in social status, social classes began to emerge based upon occupation, wealth, and/or family name. A class of government officials, military leaders and personnel, artisans, professionals, and a working class emerged. To meet their economic desires, the use of slave labor developed in many ancient societies. The forms of government these early civilizations established can be categorized by the number of rulers. In short, leadership by one is a monarchy or dictatorship, leadership by a few is oligarchy, and rule by the people is democracy.
At its core, the government functions to advance social and economic activity. To achieve these goals, the government must have the power to make and enforce laws, conduct foreign policy, levy taxes, and make war. A main function is self-preservation: the society must be protected from internal and external threats, and this is achieved through a system of laws. Judicial systems are established to settle disputes according to the law. Foreign policy sets out to prevent war, settle disputes, provide foreign aid, and ally with other countries on political issues. Taxes are levied to provide public goods that enhance the well-being of the society. Education, national defense, police/fire protection, infrastructure, natural resource management, public health programs are examples of public goods and services many civilizations funded through taxation. To provide for national security, governments typically set up organizations to collect foreign and domestic intelligence as well as fund a military. Disputes between societies usually centered on dissensions about trade, human rights violations, religious differences, and resources. 6
The Social Contract
The questions of my students still remain, however: what is power and why do individuals allow governments to have power? Several political philosophers worked to answer these same questions with their theories on the social contract. Social contract explains that early peoples lived in a state of nature without an organized social structure or government; people were free to do as they pleased. In this state, conflicts arose as individuals imposed on others. In order to achieve a better life, social-contract theory states that people choose to give up some of their personal freedoms and in return are able to live and work in an organized and secure society. 7 So how does this relate to us? Or more importantly, how is this relevant to our students?
The social contract is the basis for the American system of government, and it is important for our students to understand the major principles behind our Constitution. To better understand social contract, we will explore the ideas of three theorists: Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. In his introduction to Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Social Contract and Discourses, G. D. H. Cole states, "Forthe study of the great writers and thinkers of the past, historical imagination is the first necessity. Without mentally referring to the environment in which they lived, we cannot hope to penetrate below the inessential and temporary to the absolute and permanent value of their thought. Theory, no less than action, is subject to these necessities; the form in which men cast their speculations, no less than the ways in which they behave, are the result of the habits of thought and action which they find around them." 8 As I work with my students to understand people and places of the past, I try to keep historical context in the forefront. The time in which a piece was created in plays an integral part in understanding the true meaning of the piece. The students should understand the importance of taking a deeper look into the time period of study to make more logical inferences based on the information they have.
To further understand the writings of said political theorists, we will examine the time period in which their theories arose. In 1651, Tomas Hobbes expressed his view of human nature in his book Leviathan. Hobbes wrote during the English Civil War, which lasted from 1642-1651, ending with the execution of King Charles I. The war was fought between the Parliamentarians, supporters of the Parliament, and Royalists, those supporting the king. John Locke developed his thinking during the Glorious Revolution in England, which took place from 1688-1689 and during which many battles were fought in Scotland and Ireland. The end result of the revolution was the replacement of King James II with Mary II and her husband, William III, forming a co-monarchy. Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote during the French Revolution, which, put simply, was a revolt of working classes against the wealthy. The French working classes felt that the wealthy government officials and the elite were living too extravagantly, at the cost of the working classes. Clearly, all three men were living during times of political unrest that heavily influenced their writings, especially those writings related to the social contract theory.
Thomas Hobbes coined the influential phrase "state of nature," which he believed was actually a war-like state. In his book Leviathan, Hobbes explains, "The right of nature, which writers commonly call the Fus Naturale, is the Liberty each man hath, to use his own power, as he will himself, for the preservation of his own nature; that is to say, of his own life; and consequently, of doing anything, which in his own judgment, and reason, hee [sic] shall conceive to be the aptest thereunto." With this statement he explained his belief that humans are self-serving by nature and if left to their own devices, would lead lives that are "nasty, brutish, and short." 9 Each person is working toward his or her own goals, working to meet his or her own needs. People think they have the right to everything, even things in the possession of others, even the body of others. In a state of nature, there were no property rights and no security. Hobbes believed people were motivated only by a fear of death, and this fear was the primary incentive for conforming to the rules of government. 10
In contrast to Hobbes, who thought a state of nature would be so unfavorable that people would immediately choose leadership over complete freedom, John Locke saw the state of nature as man living as he is supposed to and people being free to pursue their needs as they saw fit. In Two Treatises of Government, Locke states, "The state of nature has a law of nature to govern it, which obliges everyone: and reason, which is that law, teaches all mankind, who will but consult it, that being all equal and independent, no one out to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions: for men being all the workmanship of the omnipotent, and infinitely wise maker; all the servants of one sovereign master, sent into the world by his order, and about his business; they are his property, whose workmanship they are, made to last during his, not one another's pleasure: and being furnished with like faculties sharing all in one community of nature, there cannot be supposed and such subordination among us, that may authorize us to destroy one another, as if we were made for one another's uses, as the inferior ranks of creatures are for ours." 11 Locke expressed the idea of protecting the natural rights of "life, liberty, or possessions." He believed that governments were created to keep society orderly and resolve conflict. His thoughts on separation of powers and protection of rights were integral in the writing of the Declaration of Independence. He stated that in a state of nature people can pursue their interests but are responsible to God. 12
In contrast to Hobbes and Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed that human nature is generally good and that it is society that corrupts the individual. Society puts people in chains, and getting back to a state of nature would allow people to truly be free. According to Rousseau's theory, going back to a state of nature would correct many problems that societies are facing. Under the right conditions, people are good and will do the right thing. 13 In The Social Contract and Discourses, he explained that democracy is best suited for places with smaller populations; even the most purely democratic government is in the hands of a few powerful people, even in cases in which all citizens are included in the democratic process. He explained, "The strongest is never strong enough to be always the master, unless he transforms strength into right, and obedience into duty." 14 Rousseau's idea of right is not clear, but he makes clear the idea that leadership changes over time in response to the needs of the society and that people will give themselves the laws they deem necessary.
In conclusion, the social contract is not visible; it is implied. One cannot see the social contract itself as if it were a thing. What we can see are the ways governments use their power to maintain the social contract. We see this as laws are made and enforced, as taxes are collected, as wars are waged, and as foreign policy is conducted. Even though styles and methods of leadership have developed drastically over human history, the need for leadership has remained constant as people desired to create a productive society. We were born into the social contract of today; we didn't have a choice as it was established before our time. Only if we could go back to a state of nature could we see the behavioral changes that take place with the institution of government and the effects of the social contract involved in its creation.
Teaching about Government with Visual Media
To engage and hook my students for this unit, I am using a graphic novel The Girl Who Owned a City. Based on the 1975 novel by O.T. Nelson, the graphic novel was adapted by Dan Jolley and illustrated by Joelle Jones and Jenn Manley Lee. The Girl Who Owned a City pulls the reader in with highly stylized characters in easy-to-follow sequential art. For students with little experience in reading graphic novels, as most of my students are, this is a great book for an introduction to the medium.
Why use graphic novels? Based on research conducted by Maureen Bakis presented in her book The Graphic Novel Classroom, graphic novels allow for higher levels of engagement as the combination of words and images appeal to more students. Graphic novels challenge students to make meaning visually as well as textually, an important skill set for twenty-first century learners. She believes the use of words and images allow for a wide range of discussions about the author's choices, artistic representations, and illustrator's decisions, all of which are objectives of the common core standards. While reading The Girl Who Owned a City, I will focus on the following common core standards: "CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RH.6-8.1: Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of primary and secondary sources and CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RH.6-8.5:Describe how a text presents information (e.g., sequentially, comparatively, and causally)." Students and parents may feel apprehensive about reading graphic novels, so it is important to make classroom objectives clear. 15
Defending the use of graphic novels in the classroom requires a clear knowledge of exactly what a graphic novel is and what it is not. K. S. Hansen states in her article "In Defense of Graphic Novels," "While most people claim to honor art as a cultivating force, some of those same people also loudly oppose graphic novels because they so heavily rely on visual elements." 16 Critics of graphic novels hold the belief that they are too easy and lack the sophistication of other novels. In reality, graphic texts are not just comic books with a new name: they are narratives, memoirs, historic fiction, and even nonfiction. Graphic novels today are written for readers of all ages and can be highly sophisticated. With a diversity of genres and writing styles, graphic novels can be used in the classroom to introduce or expand students' knowledge of a particular topic or theme. With the story being conveyed in a visual way, the students will become more apt in interpreting meaning from artistic representations. In Reading Comics, Douglas Wolk attempts to clear up misconceptions about comics, when he states, "Comics are not a genre; they're a medium." He explains that with every medium there are good works and poor works. Some novels are worthy of study and others are not, and this mode of thinking can also be applied to the study of graphic novels. Some are worthy of use in the classroom and some are not; undoubtedly, it is up to educators to make the appropriate distinction. 17
The Girl Who Owned a City: Key Concepts
The graphic novel version of The Girl Who Owned a City is not organized into chapters. I will organize the information and suggested themes for discussion according to the setting in which they take place.
Lisa's Family Home (pages 5-30): A virus breaks out, killing all of the adults throughout the world. Interestingly, anyone under the age of twelve is unaffected by the virus. At the beginning of the novel the main character, Lisa, is, on her own, caring for herself and her brother. The resources become scarce, and the competition for them steadily increasing. Children loot homes and businesses to obtain the supplies they need for survival. Lisa's brother wonders why they can't help all of the other kids around them, and Lisa explains that it would be too difficult and that they can only trust themselves.
Themes: The first setting of the story is representative of a state of nature. Throughout the city the kids were doing what was necessary for survival; Lisa and her brother are not concerned with the needs of others because they believe that people cannot be trusted. In a state of nature, there are no authority figures or laws to dictate how people are to behave. This is apparent throughout the story as the kids behave violently, steal, and even drive cars without any consequences from any authorities. Lisa, the older sister, cares for her little brother, representing the earliest political structure, the family. She feels a responsibility for his well-being, physical and mental. John Locke expressed that people act according to their religious or moral code, and Lisa illustrated this through her discussion with her little brother about stealing. She believes that stealing directly from individuals is wrong but taking from abandoned farms and warehouses is fine.
Grandville (pages 31-35): The main villains in the novel, the Chidester Gang, pose a major threat to Lisa and her brother as well as other children throughout the city. The Chidester Gang does what they have to for survival, even if that means hurting others. After being threatened by the gang, Lisa decides to create a safe haven for herself, her brother, and a few friends. With Lisa's wit and leadership skills, she creates a mini city called Grandville. They form a militia. Things run smoothly until members of the Chidester Gang show up on Grandville's doorstep. They tell Lisa she has the choice to either to give up her supplies and join them or to face the consequences. Lisa stands up to the gang, eventually convincing them to leave. But when the kids go out to celebrate the first Granville holiday, the gang burns their house down, completely destroying their house and the stockpile of supplies inside. Surprisingly, Lisa is not even fazed; she wants to create a life that is moral and good and to make a life separate from the Chidester Gang. To fulfill her goal, Lisa scours the city for a better location, something more secure. She ends up choosing a school building and calling it her fortress.
Themes: Within this short section of the novel, a population growth occurred. Lisa and her brother are no longer living alone. After several discussions, they decide to allow others to live with them. A larger population necessitates more protection, so Lisa establishes a large militia to protect against the Chidester Gang. Lisa uses various methods to bring the citizens together, actions that give the reader a strong sense of her leadership abilities. She organizes a council to discuss current issues, she gives people special assignments, and she even created the first Grandville holiday. When the kids are away for the holiday, the Chidester gang attacks. This event can be related to an act of war, illustrating Hobbes's idea of a state of nature being warlike.
Glenbard (pages 36-126): At the fortress, security is Lisa's main concern. She establishes safety rules, creates an emergency escape tunnel, sets up a security patrol including dogs, assigns jobs, and creates public services (a mini school, medical treatment room, game room, and strategy room). Lisa's closest friends question her leadership style because they want to be given credit for the work they have been doing and the contributions they make. The population of Lisa's fortress, named Glenbard, grows to six hundred kids. After about a year in which Lisa puts down only a few minor outside threats, the Chidester Gang returns, more powerful than ever. They violently take Lisa hostage, hoping to obtain the fortress for themselves. Lisa's friend Todd organizes a successful rescue mission, and upon Lisa's recovery from injuries suffered during the kidnapping, they work to take Glenbard back. They send Todd into Glenbard in disguise to obtain intelligence, while Lisa travels around the city looking for new recruits to aid in their fight against the Chidester Gang. Lisa expects to be accepted with open arms; yet the kids around Chicago reacted with hostility, and she ends up in a fight with one of the leaders of a group of kids living in the city. This leads Lisa to believe that there were more threats ahead: the Chidester Gang wasn't her only enemy. She becomes motivated to get the fortress back and secure it as best she can. Her story ends when she convinces some of the city kids to come to her aid. A few groups of kids from around the city band together in support of Lisa getting Glenbard back. After a heated argument between Lisa and the leader of the Chidester Gang, the gang leaves the fortress, miserable and defeated. This success reenergized the citizens of Glenbard, and they began working to reestablish the fortress.
Themes: During the final scenes, Lisa establishes a set of rules to keep the kids safe and maintain order within the fortress. This part of the plot illustrates the way governments establish rules and laws aimed at achieving the goals of the society. Lisa wanted the group of kids to remain safe from outside invasions, so they establish the following rules: no candles or lights on in the building, you can leave only if you are on a mission, and you must speak softly. She tells the kids, "You must follow every rule or you will be asked to leave." This statement showed the consequence for breaking any one of the rules that Lisa established. Systems of law typically include consequences for noncompliance. The emergency escape tunnel, security patrol, mini school, medical treatment room, game room, and strategy room represent public goods and services. Lisa assigns jobs, representing a specialization of labor. Lisa's leadership style as one sole ruler illustrated a monarchy. When questioned by her friends, Lisa epitomized Rousseau's idea of "society putting people in chains." The kids feel controlled and resent the power Lisa has. She remains firm in her decision to be the sole ruler.
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