The Revolutionary War and Timeline of Events
The Stamp Act March 22, 1765
After the French and Indian war, France surrendered its North American territories to the British. The British retained control of those territories. The British found it necessary to impose taxes on the colonists in order to maintain its army and pay for the war. One way the British imposed taxes was with the passage of the Stamp Act. (March 22, 1765) This stamp act taxed legal documents and newspapers. Every public or legal document had to have a British Stamp on it. The colonists objected to this act and it was repealed. This gave the colonists the confidence that they could successfully oppose other taxes.
The Townshend Revenue Act 1767
The Townshend Revenue Act was passed that taxed goods such as glass, paint, oil, tea and paper. The Colonists again opposed this taxation citing that it was illegal and was taxation without representation in the Parliament. This strong opposition caused colonists to boycott goods that were subject to the Townshend Revenue Act and goods that were typically imported from Britain. (Boston non importation agreement) Many colonists and shop owners joined this opposition because this then provided more revenue for them. In response to this great opposition troops from Britain and Nova Scotia then occupied Boston as resistance grew. This lead to what is ultimately dubbed the Boston Massacre. (fig.1.4)
It was said that during the Boston Massacre troops fired into a large group of protestors. Crispus Attucks became the first black casualty of the Revolution. This is portrayed in Paul Reveres etching and was widely publicized in newspapers to rally support. "The massacre divided Boston along, class, ethnic, and racial lines." 1
The Tea Act 1773 and the Boston Tea Party
On May 10, 1773, the British government passed a law known as the Tea Act that created a monopoly and lowered the price on tea from the British East India Company. The price of tea was lowered but colonists had to pay a duty on the tea. This Act was an attempt to force the colonists to buy tea from the East India Company because the price was the lowest and other teas would be too expensive to purchase; thus helping the tea company and allowing the British to exercise control. Tea was an important part of life and no one would want to give it up. The colonists felt that purchasing tea from this company and paying duties would be an acknowledgement of British power and reaffirm British control. The colonists viewed this as another attempt at taxation without representation and were infuriated. A group of colonists known as the Sons of Liberty dressed as Mohawk Indians and boarded the boats that were in the harbor. The boats contained tea in their holding areas. They decided to dump the tea overboard into the Boston Harbor. Ironically, some of the tea belonged to Copley's father in law who consigned the tea and had ties to the loyalists.
The Intolerable Acts 1774
The "Intolerable Acts" was what the American colonists nicknames a series of laws – called the Coercive Laws that the British Parliament passed in response to the Boston Tea party. These laws put greater restriction on the colonists as a punishment so to speak for their opposition to the Parliament and their participation in the Boston tea party. The fifth law aimed at Quebec and limited expansion of the colonies.
The Boston Port Act 1774
The first of the laws passed closed the port of Boston until restitution was paid for the dumped tea. Only food and firewood were permitted to pass through the port. This then made it impossible for the colonists to get the things necessary to sustain their everyday lives. The official port was moved to Marblehead, Massachusetts. The British Government used this act as a scare tactic so that other colonies would be afraid of such restrictions being placed upon them and would concede to the British Parliament. It was during this time that King George III appointed General Thomas Gage as military governor in an effort to intimidate the inhabitants of the colony.
The Massachusetts Government Act1774
The second law revoked the colonies constitution and limited the number of town meetings that could be held. It also abolished the election of town officials. This act basically eliminated any self-governing and therefore further threatened the liberty of colonists. This proved to be counterproductive as the other colonies sympathized with the Massachusetts colonists.
Administration of Justice Act 1774
The third law gave Thomas Gage the power to send offending colonists to Great Britain or other colonies for trial to be heard by a British judge.
The Quartering Act of 1765 and 1774
The fourth law served many purposes. The first purpose was to supply housing and provisions to the British soldiers in the thirteen colonies. After the French and Indian war, Britain's debt had grown and the cost to send the troops back to Britain was too great. Therefore, to combat the problem, the British decided the soldiers would stay in America even in peacetime as a protective force and the colonists would bear the burden of the cost. The second purpose was to appease the Native Americans by protecting the borders of the colonies and thus preventing any westward expansion. The Quartering Act of 1774 gave the Governor the authority to shelter the troops by any means necessary.
The Quebec Act 1774
The Quebec Act allowed for expansion into areas and limited the colonies room for expansion. It also passed reforms favorable to Catholics which angered the predominant Protestant colonists. The Province of Quebec was not given any political representation.
The Continental Congress 1774
The Continental Congress (1774) was made up of two groups of people from twelve colonies (Georgia excluded) who met to discuss their issues with the British Parliament. A declaration of rights was born from this meeting. It was agreed that if the issues were not resolved in one year's time that they would meet again. The second Continental Congress meeting took place in 1775.
Liberty or Death
Throughout the colonies, Americans of many persuasions believed that freedom and liberty were more precious than life itself. 2 The idea of liberty or death became a motto for those supporting the Patriot cause. This idea manifested itself in many different ways across the country. It was depicted and displayed everywhere and anywhere. The motto became somewhat of a mantra and was worded various ways in various regions. The most infamous of those were the words spoken by Patrick Henry when he stated, "As for me, give me liberty, or give me death." 3
At the same time objects also served as a symbol of liberty. The liberty pole is one such object that symbolized the idea of liberty and freedom and that it was attainable. The liberty pole was derived from an ancient symbol of a Roman Goddess that carried a long wand called a vindicta. Throughout history, this image evolved and was depicted in many ways in different struggles. During the Revolutionary War, a liberty pole was created in New York and a liberty flag was often hung at the top with a liberty cap carved from wood. The liberty pole erected in New York was torn down many times by British Regiment until a version was created that was indestructible. "The fame of the New York's Liberty Pole grew with every fight and spread rapidly beyond Manhattan." 4 Soon liberty poles were erected in many of the colonies.
I make mention of the liberty pole for two reasons. The first being that Laurie Halse Anderson makes reference to the liberty pole when she uses an epigraph from Jehu Grant a slave who escaped to fight for the Patriots in her novel Forge. "Tuesday, October 7, 1777. But when I saw liberty poles and the people all engaged for the support of freedom, I could not but like and be pleased with such a thing….These considerations induced me to enlist into the American Army, where I served faithfully about ten months, when my master found and took me home.-pension application of Jehu Grant, a Rhode Island slave who escaped to fight for the Patriots." 5
One can draw the conclusion that Jehu Grant felt so strongly about the idea of liberty and freedom and that perhaps slavery might end if the colonists obtained independence that he ran from slavery to enlist and support the cause. Another notion might be that Jehu may have been granted freedom as many slaves were promised if he fought in the war. This quote also depicts parallels between Jehu and the main character in Halse's novel Forge. Curzon is also a slave who has run away and enlists in the army to fight for the Patriots.
The second reason I make mention of the liberty pole is the depiction of it in Samuel Jennings' painting Liberty Displaying the Arts and Sciences (1790-92, Library Company of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.) While the historical context and intent was to paint liberty bestowing gifts upon newly freed slaves, for the purposes of this unit I believe it is important to show the students not only the liberty pole in connection with the novel but the representation of the figures in the painting. The African American woman reaching to liberty with her hand on her heart and the man with his hand on his head lowered almost in disbelief are profound images. The people in the background are celebrating around the liberty pole.
Students many interpret this as freedom has been obtained or as something the people in the painting are trying to obtain. Interpreted either way, I think this is a great representation of historical value that will spark many interesting interpretations and conversations. I think it is a great piece for students to analyze and draw conclusions upon. I also believe many students will be able to elicit and create emotional responses in writing assignments around this piece.
The Role of Class in the Revolutionary War
The British Army was made up of many different social classes. The "red coats" as they were called were the regular soldiers. This group was often made up of men who enlisted in the army for life but were often ex-convicts. These soldiers had some training but were trained for European Wars. Many of the men who were recruited were unfamiliar with American territory and had difficulty tactically in America. Unlike their opposing forces, the British were not trained for the harsh conditions they faced. Many of the British officers had achieved this role by purchasing their commissions or by using family connections. Generals were often rulers with aristocratic backgrounds. Many of the officers and generals had very little military background making it difficult to direct others. Despite this, the British army had proved very effective in defeating the French and their allies in Europe, and in military conflicts in the British Empire in India, therefore the American loyalists faced a formidable enemy.
The American Army was made up of two different groups. The first was the militia who were citizens ready to fight in an emergency. These soldiers had very little experience. The second group was called the Continental Army. The Continental Army was the first established Army in America. The Army was made up of all different social classes, these included farmers, tradesmen, craftsmen and slaves. These soldiers enlisted to support the efforts of independence. The Continental Army had an advantage, as they knew the terrain and was trained for the harsh conditions. They also had better access to necessary supplies to fight in battle.
The Role of Gender in the Revolutionary War
Women during the revolution served in many roles. Since many of their husbands had left for battle to support the cause, many of the women were left to do the jobs their husbands left behind. Often the women had to maintain farms and their homes or serve in the role their husband had before the war. Women also had to create many of the things at home that were boycotted. In support of the war efforts, many of the women served as nurses, cooks, and sometimes soldiers. Many women felt very strong about the cause and even served as spies. Some women went as far as to disguise themselves as men and serve as soldiers.
One particular group of women was known as camp followers. These women often worked at the camps as seamstresses and washed and mended clothing. These women were often paid for their service.
Mary Ludwig Hays who later became known as Mary Pitcher became an iconic hero and an inspiration to women during and after the Revolutionary War. Mary Hays accompanied her husband during war time and would run pitchers of water to the soldiers. The water was used to cool the cannons. It is said that when her husband was killed, she took over his position at his cannon and fought for the Patriots. Mary Hays was dubbed Mary Pitcher and her involvement in the Revolutionary War became legendary.
Abigail Adams was a patriot who ran the family farm while her husband worked at the second Continental Congress. Abigail Adams often wrote to tell the Continental Army where the British enemy was hiding. She also wrote a series of letters that included the conditions the people in Boston were living in as well as her views on slavery and women's rights. In one such letter Abigail Adam's wrote:
"I long to hear that you have declared an independancy-and by the way in the code of Laws which I suppose it will be necessary for you to make I desire you would Remember the Ladies, and be more generous and favourable to them than your ancestors. Do not put such unlimited power into the hands of the Husbands. Remember all Men would be tyrants if they could. If perticuliar care and attention is not paid to the Laidies we are determined to foment a Rebelion, and will not hold ourselves bound by any Laws in which we have no voice, or Representation." 6
Even though Abigail was at home she made sure she fought for the independence of all people.
An American female sculptor who also supported the Patriots efforts was Patience Wright. Wright was New Jersey born and when tensions starting increasing she left for England. In England, she created wax figures. Many royal figures sat for portraits. "The painter Sir Joshua Reynolds, President of the Royal Academy of art warned connoisseurs and aspiring artists that waxwork figures fell outside the category of true sculpture." 7 Obviously this did not discourage people, as some of her most notable patrons were Lord Lyttelton, Thomas Penn, and William Pitt. Wright worked as a spy during the war sending messages in her wax to American friends. Even though she was living in London she stayed true to her Patriot roots and even considered herself the symbol of liberty. The only remaining sculpture is that of William Pitt and is located in Westminster Abbey.
The Role of Race in the Revolutionary War
A great majority of black people who fought in the Revolutionary war were Loyalists. Most slaves sided with whichever army had promised them freedom. The British were more successful in recruiting slaves belonging to Patriot masters because they promised the slaves freedom for fighting alongside them against the Patriots. Many runaway slaves had joined the British Loyalists in their efforts as well, after a proclamation was made promising them freedom. Runaway slaves belonging to Loyalists were returned to their owners. This does not mean that many didn't serve in the Continental Army. More black soldiers would have fought for the Patriots had Washington not banned recruitment of them when he took command of the Continental Army.
At the end of the war, Americans demanded return of their property. This included slaves. However, the Loyalists refused to go back on their word to soldiers and created a list of soldiers who fought. This list enabled black Loyalists to board a ship bound for freedom. Unfortunately, many of these soldiers seeking freedom ended up being returned to slavery in other countries where they sought freedom.
Native Americans
The Native Americans fought on both sides of the war. Native Americans had their own concerns in regard to their lands. Some fought alongside the Patriots while others fought alongside the loyalists. One painter who depicted the Native Americans during the Revolutionary War in his art work was Benjamin West. From Benjamin West's work we often see the Native Americans as strong, muscular individuals.
One example of this is The Savage Chief (The Indian Family). (1761, Hunterian Collection trustees, Council of Royal College of Surgeons of England) In this painting we see a Native American leaving his family to fight in the war. The Native American is depicted as a stocky, muscular figure. Many of West's Native American figures often mimicked that of Greco-Roman sculpture. We also see a female Native American figure holding a child as depicted in many other paintings of that time period. In the background we see a child holding a dog. This was representative of many women and children who were left behind while their husbands went to war.
Another of West's paintings depicting Native Americans is Colonel Guy Johnson and Karonghyontye (Captain David Hill). (1776 National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.) The Colonel depicted in this painting is wearing Native American clothing and military clothing. There is light shed upon him while Karonghyontye is standing in the shadows. There is an obvious camaraderie between them as the Native American is holding a peace pipe and his hand is pointing outwards to where we see a group of Native Americans sitting peacefully around a fire. It appears as though the Native American is asking the Colonel to join them. This painting depicts the peaceful relations between the two groups of individuals fighting alongside one another. This also depicts the Native Americans as a people of civilized culture and not that of a savage one which is so often misunderstood by students. Students might find it interesting to note that historians have said that a Native American taught Benjamin West how to mix clay with bear grease in order to create paints.
Native Americans as a Symbol of Liberty and Freedom
"On both sides of the Atlantic, artists searched for an emblem of liberty and freedom that was more distinctly American. A favorite solution was the image of an Indian." 8 In this sense, the image of an Indian was used to represent America in different prints. The symbol went through many changes during this time depending upon how the conflict evolved. In early images, the Indian symbol was portrayed with Britannia and was portrayed as vulnerable a woman who was abused. In many prints she is portrayed in conflict with Britannia. As the war tensions grew the prints depicted more violent scenes between an Indian princess as a symbol in conflict with Britannia. Towards the end of the war, the Indian princess is depicted with the two figures putting an end to their struggle.
"After the American victories at Trenton, Princeton, Saratoga, and Yorktown, the emblematic Indian underwent a change in gender." 9 The image of the Indian changed to a masculine victorious figure. "Americans began to use the symbol of an Indian as iconic figures and selected different figures according to their regional cultures." 10 Americans chose these iconic figures based upon their different qualities such as dignity, leadership, ethics, strength, and peace.
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