Artists and Art depicting the Revolutionary War
John Trumbull
John Trumbull was an American born in Lebanon Connecticut in 1756. He was the son of Jonathon Trumbull the governor of Connecticut. His mother was Faith Robinson Trumbull. John Trumbull attended Harvard at the age of fifteen. Many believe that Trumbull's artist style was influenced by the loss of sight in one eye. John Trumbull served as a soldier in the American Revolution. Later he was appointed second personal aide to General George Washington. As a painter, he studied under Benjamin West.
One of Trumbull's most iconic paintings and first painting depicting the Revolutionary war was The Death of General Joseph Warren at the Battle of Bunker's Hill. (fig.1.0)This painting depicts General Warren as a Christ like figure in which he is about to meet his final destiny by being slain by a British soldier. Colonel John Small prevents this from happening. This is perhaps because the British often considered themselves as very "gentleman" like figures. To slay a man who is already dying would be almost salvage like. Bjalajac explains that "Trumbull's painting represents class differences within the anarchic violence of battle." 11 He further explains that Trumbull captures the essence of camaraderie even though the two sides are opposing forces. "Yet the Masonic spirit of brotherhood signifies the emergence from revolutionary chaos of a new, more egalitarian social order." 12
Trumbull's use of the light and shadows is evident as the soldiers are almost "bathed" in a glorious light and to the right you see the sky bellowing in dark clouds with the use of red almost representing blood that is shed from battle. The image is also divided by a diagonal line in which on one side we see biblical references depicting General Joseph Warren as a "Christ" like figure with light illuminating him and the other side of the painting representing a sort of "hell" with red and darkness in the clouds. In the right bottom corner we are given a glimpse of an African soldier who is hiding behind a Caucasian soldier. From the viewer's perspective, this could be a representation of social class and submission. Perhaps he is hiding because he is horrified at what he is witnessing or he may be behind the soldier in a submissive role. In terms of triangular composition, Trumbull placed the solider at the furthest point to the right. "Trumbull's representation devalues Salem's role spatially as well as thematically by dethroning him from his perch and relegating him to the most inferior part of the composition. In this way Trumbull helped "read" him out of the event…" 13 On the left we see another African American figure hidden by the flags. Bjelajac tells us "Trumbull's acknowledgement of African-American participation serves only to underscore their relative invisibility and exclusion from the pantheon of American heroes." 14
Two of Trumbull's paintings Surrender of Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown, Virginia, 19 October 1781 (fig. 1.2) and The Surrender of General Burgoyne at Saratoga, New York, 17 October 1777 (fig. 1.3) give us a glimpse of British defeat. In the painting Surrender of Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown, Virginia, 19 October 1781 we see the French depicted on the left side of the painting as portrayed by the white flag. It is of interest to note that many people thought this to be the British and that the flag represented surrender however it is the French flag. On the right side we see the American Patriots. In the center, Major General Benjamin Lincoln is depicted on a horse. He is visibly extending his hand towards the sword of the British soldier. In the background we see dark clouds and a broken canon showing the remnants of the battle.
In the second painting The Surrender of General Burgoyne at Saratoga, New York, 17 October 1777, we see Major General Hoaratio Gates. It is interesting to note that Gates was retired from the British army and served in the American regiment during the Revolutionary war. Gates retired his commission from the British because advancement required money and influence. Frustrated with the British hierarchy, Gates joined the American army when war broke out within the colonies. In the painting to the left of Gates we see Lieutenant General John Burgoyne surrendering to the Patriots. He is offering his sword for surrender. To the right we see Colonel Daniel Morgan who is almost guiding him by extending his left hand toward the tent. This painting gives one the sense of peace. The cannons are bright and clean and the sky is blue.
It is important to show and discuss these images because the Battle of Saratoga is depicted in the novel Forge. The main character Curzon, previously a prisoner of war, proposes a question. He wants to know why no one is jeering as the soldiers surrender. He states furthermore that they should shame the British soldiers. Curzon when captured had experienced the humiliation of being paraded before the British and taunted in New York. He feels this is his turn to do the same. He is particularly puzzled by his comrade's response of "Uncle says we must give them honor." 15 "This is the first time a British Army has surrendered ever." 16 He questions whether the point of war is to beat the enemy and make them feel the pain of losing. 17 Halse gives a glimpse into the main character's mind and many young soldiers who often wondered what they were really fighting for and why grown men who claimed to be gentlemen couldn't agree without bloodshed.
Benjamin West
Benjamin West was born in Springfield Pennsylvania in 1738. West was the son of a Quaker inn keeper. Benjamin West was self-taught and had very little formal education. West travelled to Italy where he copied the styles of the great Italian masters Titan and Raphael. King George the III commissioned West to create portraits of the royal family in 1763. In 1770, Benjamin West painted the iconic The Death of General Wolfe (1770, The National Gallery of Canada). King George appointed him historical painter to the court in 1772. Benjamin West was the president of the Royal Academy.
The Death of General Wolfe's subject is the victory of the British over the French at the battle of Quebec. "Sir Joshua Reynolds regarded West's turn to realism as a vulgarization of high art, a descent from the universal ideals of classicism". 18 During the eighteenth century, artists' style was referred to as neoclassicism. This meant that artists painted pictures that were reminiscent of Greek or Roman style. Figures were often depicted wearing Roman or Greek clothing and sculptures were created in the style of Greek or Roman body forms. This was considered to be "classy" or "dignified". When Benjamin West painted a realistic picture, it went against what was considered to be classic art and was considered offensive in the world of art and quite rebellious. He was going against what "properly trained" artists did. "West's aesthetic rebellion against Reynolds and European academic tradition served the cause of American nationalism". 19 West wanted to show the "nonfiction" side to the New World. He wanted his painting to be historically accurate. He refers to a historian using a pen to write facts and compares this to an artist using a pencil.
The Death of General Wolfe depicts Wolfe lying in the arms of soldiers. It suggests a religious connotation in a sense in which Wolfe resembles Christ and the flag resembles the cross. The men surrounding him appear to be reminiscent of Christ's disciples after he was crucified. Wolfe is shown with a glorious light shining upon him. In the background to the right we see dark clouds billowing in the sky. Also to the right, we see a soldiers with their hands clasped almost to be praying for the Generals soul. To the left is a Native American looking at the General. The Native American is portrayed with strong muscle definition reminiscent of Roman sculpture. A man above him is in green but dons Native American attire. West identifies him as William Johnson. "As a superintendent of Indian affairs, Johnson had learned Iroquois customs and language and married a Mohawk woman, more easily enabling him to convince some Native Americans to ally with Britain against France." 20 This also shows us that the Native Americans were loyal to the British and supported their efforts to retain control of the colonies because the British promised protection against westward expansion.
John Singleton Copley
John Singleton Copley was born in 1738. He was one of six children. Historians know that Copley was of Irish decent. There is very little known about Copley's schooling or boyhood. He has been viewed however, as well educated based upon the letters he wrote. Copley's mother owned a tobacco shop on Long Warf. When Copley's father died his mother remarried Peter Pelham. Copley's first work was a portrait of the Reverend William Ulsteed minister of Brick Church at the age of fifteen. Copley's fame came at an English exhibition in 1776. His income was actually large for the area and promoted him to aristocracy. Copley went onto marry Susanna Farnham Clarke who hailed from a wealthy family. Copley's in laws were connected to the Loyalists. An interesting note is that Copley's father in law was consigned the tea that was thrown into the Boston Harbor during the Boston Tea Party. In 1774, Copley sailed to London and toured Europe for nine months. Copley never returned to America.
"Copley's Portrait of Paul Revere (1768, Museum of Fine Arts Boston) is a significant social departure from aristocratic portraits of colonial wealth." 21 Copley depicts Revere in his portrait with a finely crafted silver tea pot. The viewer of the painting is drawn in by Revere's right eye. Light and darkness emphasizes this in his painting. The right eye is shown in light and is very powerfully looking at the viewer. Revere is dressed in very simple clothing with a white shirt made from cotton. His hand is under his chin in a manner that suggests perhaps he is thinking or contemplating something. His tools are displayed on the table which suggests that he uses his hands to craft his beautiful silver pieces. Much attention is drawn to the eye of Paul Revere which suggests the all-knowing Masonic eye. "The arched, penetrating eye is akin to the all-seeing, providential eye that often decorated Masonic aprons, engravings, and other artifacts." 22 "The all-seeing eye symbolized God's creative power as Supreme Architect." 23 Copley's painting does two things here in regards to the social and political aspects of society. First he "elevates the social status of labor and of craftsmen" 24 and secondly, he "reassures wealthy patrons that portraits, silver teapots, and other luxury items were manifestations of virtue rather than vice." 25 Copley was very good at remaining a neutral party in the Revolutionary War.
Paul Revere
Paul Revere was born in 1735. Revere's father was a Frenchman named Apollos Rivoire. His father was an artisan who was a metal smith and owned a shop where he created household silverware. Revere's mother was Deborah Hichborn and a Boston native. Revere was his father's apprentice and followed in his footsteps as a goldsmith. In 1757, Revere married Sarah Orne and had eight children. When Sarah Orne passed, Revere married Rachel Walker and again had eight children. In order to supplement his income as a goldsmith Revere was also a dentist. Since Revere was a skilled craftsman, "he wired in false teeth carved from walrus ivory or animal teeth." 26 During this time there was no formal training for dentists but Revere being a goldsmith was able to create fillings as well.
Revere was a prominent figure in the Revolutionary War. The patrons of his finely crafted silver pieces included artisans and the city's upper class. During this time, Revere was a member of the freemasons. As tensions grew so did his role in the mounting conflict. He spied on the British soldiers and is infamous for warning the colonists that the Lexington Minutemen were approaching. Revere also participated in the dumping of the tea during the Boston Tea Party. During the war, Revere manufactured gun powder and cannons for the Continental Army.
Paul Revere's The Bloody Massacre Perpetrated in King Street Boston on March 5th 1770 (fig.1.4) became one of the large pieces of propaganda to fuel the tensions between the colonists and the British. In his etching, he portrays the event as a massacre of innocent men. The etching shows the British standing in a straight line firing in to a crowd of innocent protestors in which they are portrayed defenseless. On the building behind the British soldiers there is a sign that reads "Butcher's Hall". Paul Revere's etching depicts the sky as blue, yet in the corner we catch a glimpse of the moon. There has been much discussion around the time of day of this event and the absence of snow on the ground in Revere's work has been a point of contention. The colonists in his etching are dressed very gentleman like. In the crowd there is a woman standing innocently as yet to be defended by the men who were fighting, again alluding to the idea that the colonists were gentleman like figures. Crispus Attucks the first casualty of the revolution is portrayed in Revere's work as a white man.
Paul Revere's etching was a plagiarized copy of Henry Pelham, half-brother of John Copley. Pelham's version varies quite greatly in which we see British soldiers defending themselves against armed colonists. In Pelham's edition that he published two weeks after Revere's Crispus Attucks is depicted as an African man. Also vivid is the image of a Patriot figure wielding a large bayonet at the Loyalists in which we see them retaliating in such an attack. There are many different versions of the events that took place. One such version states that a Loyalist had refused to pay for a haircut and when confronted by a young male apprentice turned and attacked him thus causing a riot amongst the Patriots. It is alleged that Crispus Attucks was one of the organizers of this "mob". Stories then state that the angry mob began throwing snow balls at the Loyalists and that in turn the Loyalists opened fire on the mob killing five people. It is also important to note that Crispus Attucks was a runaway slave that was never caught and because of these events was eventually viewed as a martyr for his role in the Boston Massacre.
Scipio Moorhead
Scipio Moorhead was a slave and the first African American artist to paint a portrait during the Revolutionary War. His subject was Phillis Wheatley, another slave who was a poet. Susanna Wheatley, Phillis's owner recognized her talents and taught her to read and write as well as various languages. Phillis became a published poet and Moorhead designed the portrait used as a dedication in the front of her publication of poetry.
Moorhead's portrait of Phillis Wheatley is significant of this time period because it is the first time and African American let alone a slave was portrayed in such a way. Phillis is painted sitting at a desk with a quill pen in her hand. She is portrayed as an intellectual with her hand on her chin thinking. Phillis is wearing a cap and a dress similar to that of servant of the time although the family treated her more like a member than a slave.
Other Artists and Works
Listed are other artists and works that may be used for discussion relevant to race, class and gender as well as works that depict conditions at Valley Forge in regards to the imagery included in the novel Forge.
Capture of the "Serapis" by John Paul Jones, 1854, engraving from Alonzo Chappel, National Archives
Retrospective image of a ship at war. It is important for students to understand the war was not just on land.
The Declaration of Independence, July 4 th 1776, 1786-1820, John Trumbull, Yale University Art Gallery
This image is good to show students because it is not an accurate depiction of the people present but was created rather to show the founders of the nation. Students could have a great discussion surrounding the ideas of why Trumbull chose to paint this historical event in the manner he did.
Der Tod Des Major Peirsons (The Death of Major Peirson), 1782-1784, John Singleton Copley, Tate Gallery, London
This work depicts the brutal battle along with civilian women and with Peirson's servant retaliating for his death.
George Washington, ca. 1782, James Peale, The Metropolitan Museum of Art
A great picture for students to examine the flags, background and the size of Washington depicted in this portrait.
George Washington at Valley Forge, Tompkins Harrison Matteson, 1854, Anonymous Collection
A retrospective painting depicting Washington with the troops. Also depicted is the role of slaves and women attending to injured soldiers.
Joseph Brant, 1786, Gilbert Stuart (portrait of a famed Mohawk chief), The North Umberland Estates, Alnwick Castle, Collection of the Duke of Umberland
Depicts Brant in Native clothing and English silver.
Lafayette at Yorktown, ca. 1783-85, Jean Baptiste Le Paon, Lafayette College, Easton, PA.
This picture depicts Lafayette with James Armistead. Students will be intrigued to learn the story of James Armistead and the role of slaves during the war.
The March to Valley Forge, December 17 th,1777, 1883, W.T. Trego, American Revolution Center
Another retrospective painting of the harsh winter conditions and the differences in class between soldiers and officers.
Molly Pitcher at the Battle of Monmouth, copy of engraving by J.C. Armytage after Alfonzo Chappel, National Archives Records and Administration
This is a copy of an image of Molly Pitcher(Mary Ludwig Hays) who was legendary during the revolution. It depicts the role she took in the war after her husband was killed and shows how many women actually fought in support of the colonists
Mrs. Thomas Gage, 1771 John Singleton Copley, 1738-1815, Timken Museum of Art
A portrait of the British Commanders wife depicting the luxurious clothing worn by British women. A great conversation starter for students to compare and contrast the British women and the American women as well as a comparison of the classes during the war.
Phillis Wheatley 1773 Scipio Moorhead, London
A portrait of an African American slave poet painted by another African American slave. The portrait is located in the dedication of Phillis Wheatley's book and depicted her as an intellect.
Washington, 1922, N.C. Wyeth, The Hill School, Pottstown, PA.
Although painted in retrospect, this painting depicts the harsh conditions of winter at Valley Forge.
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