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In order to understand the American Indian social movements today it is important to understand the American Indian movements that have taken place over the last sixty years. Understanding the past will undoubtedly assist in understanding present-day actions. This unit will focus on four movements that increased national awareness in the American Indian fight for rights, the pursuit of self-determination, recognition of treaty rights, and foundational respect by members of the American Indian Movement (AIM). The first movement is the Alcatraz campaign. During the campaign, American Indians seized federal property and staged and extended occupancy in an attempt to negotiate rights with the U.S. government. The Trail of Broken Treaties movement was a march from the west coast to Washington, DC, which focused on securing rights for all American Indians through negotiations with the U.S. government. Next, there was a movement in the small town of Gordon, Nebraska, that demonstrated the social and economic power of American Indians when allied together. Finally, the Wounded Knee operation is another occupation of federal lands in attempt to start political negotiations with the U.S. government. The American Indian Movement swept through contemporary America “like a hurricane.”8 The movement rallied American Indians across many tribes and the organization solidified a position as a trusted and respected American Indian civil rights group.
The American Indian Movement was formally founded in 1968 as a coalition of various American Indian tribes attempting to reinforce principals of sovereignty of American Indian tribal members and reinforcement of treaty rights.9 In the 1950s, the US federal government began terminating treaty agreement and encouraging American Indians to relocate to urban areas.10 This was problematic because treaties were viewed as the supreme law of American Indian land. Without treaties dissention arose.
The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) is an important organization in the advancement and stagnation of the American Indian movement. The BIA supported American Indian relocation by offering housing, jobs, and other financial incentives.11 Once in these specified cities, especially in developing cities in California, support was not always there. Some American Indians remained finding a new exhilaration for non-reservation life. Some American Indians could not find jobs and or housing. As a result, many turned back toward their old reservations. In fact, one-third of the American Indians that left reservations using money from the BIA, returned to their reservations.12
Beneath the lure of finding hope in cities was the underlying focus of assimilation. American Indians would immerse themselves in the culture of America and begin adopting cultural practices to include language, technology and overall socialization.13 The federal government also encouraged white families to adopt American Indian children, as opposed to placing children with American Indian families.14 Government officials believed that white families would be able to give American Indians a normal home life and environment.
American Indians that refused to assimilate were among the members that led to the formal establishment of AIM. The group focused on several issues including inequalities in the welfare system as it related to American Indians, poor housing, police brutality and unemployment. Though born out of honorable social issues such as the right to liberty, self-determination, and natural rights, AIM was off-putting to many Americans due to the nature of how they operated.15 The group did not always use civil disobedience in their practices, but they never intended to. Instead, they were militant when necessary and demanding, holding the government and the people of the U.S. accountable to treaties and fair practices. The Alcatraz Campaign, Trail of Broken Treaties, Nebraska Occupation and Wounded Knee highlight the strategies AIM used to gain momentum in the American Indian fight for civil rights.
Alcatraz
The island of Alcatraz became the scene for an American Indian takeover that eventually drew national attention to the AIM movement. Mohawk Richard Oakes, one of the leaders, and other Natives sailed to the island that once housed the abandoned federal prison on November, 9, 1969. The island was claimed for “All Indians.” Many occupiers were students from UCLA and other local campuses. They immediately went to work establishing laws, order, and policies to live peacefully among one another while calling for negotiations with the U.S. government. Occupiers set up rooms in prison cells as leaders stayed in the former guard quarters. All Indians had a voice at meetings. At one point, the only ask was to deed the island to American Indians. With donations pouring in from across the country, positive press coverage, and American sympathizers, the campaign was initially a success.16
American Indians from several tribes viewed the Alcatraz as a turning point. It was among the first Pan-American Indian movements. Tribes were coming together for a more than “just powwows and dancing”, as one American Indian referenced, “we are coming together for a future.”17 For the American Indians, this was politics.
American Indians worked together to make the island habitable, though they lacked several basic systems that would have made the island livable. In that regard, many American Indians sarcastically compared it to reservation life, which supported their claim to keep the property. One leader listed that it lacked wild game, resources, water and other things American Indians did not have on reservations. In addition, as time progressed, the donations that came were very similar to the second-hand items that American Indians received on reservations.18
As time progressed, a wave of concerns hit the island. The lack of supplies including scarce food supplies proved to be difficult for some occupiers. Many students returned to campus to begin their next semester and many others returned to the mainland just for better accommodations. The American Indians that remained were replaced by what was referred to as hippy Indians, who seemed to be more concerned with recreational drug use and having a good time.
Other tragedies hit the island, which caused the news media to begin telling a narrative of disaster and dysfunction. Richard Oates daughter died after falling from a landing. This cause many sympathizers to question the safety of the island.19 Others questioned adult supervision in general.
The federal government eventually cut the electricity and water supply. Soon after, a fire broke out which proved to be disastrous. The media officially deemed the occupation as one focused on assault, theft, and unsafe conditions.20 Eventually, President Nixon gave the order to remove the few people that remained on the island in June, 1971.
The Alcatraz campaign did not have the outcome pursued by American Indians. However, the movement was powerful in that it built awareness and pride. The movement highlighted what was possible when American Indians stood together. Alcatraz was a crucial point in American Indian history that would lead to AIM movements to come.
The Alcatraz campaign was a bold movement in contemporary American Indian history. American Indians took a huge risk in the seizing of federal property. In addition, they made social, economic, and family sacrifices in support of all American Indian Tribes. Like many first attempts, the occupation did not meet the final objectives. Still, like many other successful movements throughout history, the occupation increased awareness and was a stepping stone on the path to American Indian self-determination.
Trail of Broken Treaties
In the year following the removal of the last American Indians from Alcatraz, AIM and other American Indian organizations and supporters embarked on their next big endeavor. Caravans of Native Americans organized on the west coast and began traveling east with a final destination of Washington, D.C. The ultimate goal was to present to the federal government the Twenty-Point position paper. The paper wanted the federal government to revitalize the treaty making process, create a treaty commission to review violations and supply compensation and asked the federal government to conduct Indian policy as stated in the treaties.21 It was the hope that a resolution on the points presented in the paper would lead to a resolution on issues that continued to plague American Indians societies. This undertaking relied heavily on the news media outlets to share the story of the movement and advance their cause. However, as the caravan moved closer to D.C. the media coverage dwindled and things took an unexpected turn.
A caravan of 800-1000 people arrived in Washington D.C., and went the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) office. Confusion made the initial meeting extremely inhospitable. American Indians were promised housing and board, which were not available upon arriving. Many had to individually seek shelter and the accommodations that were provided were in places that were shared with rats.22 To make matters worse, the Nixon administration refused to meet with the band of American Indians. Some American Indians felt as if they had been fooled. This lead to a conflict with the BIA and a standoff with high tension.
The BIA was founded in 1824 as an agency within the U.S. Department of Interior. The purpose was to enhance the quality of life for American Indians, promote economic opportunities, and to protect assets and tribal trusts of American Indians, Indians tribes, and Alaska Natives.23 Despite the mission, many American Indian were already in conflict with the BIA. Many felt that the BIA did not have the best interest of American Indians in mind nor did the organization serve American Indians well. American Indians also complained that bureaucratic processes of the BIA did very little to have a positive impact on the day-to-day living of American Indians. American Indians went on to accuse the BIA of mismanagement of trust resources and responsibility to individual tribes.
Feeling as if they had been double-crossed, some American Indians began destroying papers, documents, records, deeds and other items in the BIA office. In response, the local authorities were called, and they gathered around the building with snipers stationed atop rooftops. American Indians responded by setting up barricades in the office space and began fashioning weapons. The activists were prepared to fight anyone that attempted to remove them.
The resolution was a stalemate of sorts. Neither side received what they sought. However, American Indians were allowed to leave without charges and the government allotted a portion of money to help with travel expenses.
The Trail of Broken Treaties was not a complete loss. The campaign was one of several events that would eventually lead to legislation to give American Indians more control. In the mid-1970s, legislation passed to give more power to the local recognized tribes in regards to use of funds. This also included the right to hold tribal courts. Indirectly, a surge of national American Indian pride and awareness was directly associated with the caravan trail.
The Nebraska Campaign
While the American Indian Movement enjoyed popular success in urban areas, the movement did not have strong connections in rural areas and on reservations. This changed after an American Indian, Raymond Yellow Thunder, was found dead in border town. Young activists, recalling the recent campaigns of AIM, contacted the organization for help. AIM arrived with other supporters and rocketed AIM to a new level of respect as an American Indian social movement.
Oglala Lakota Yellow Thunder was found dead in his pick-up truck in the border town of Gordon, Nebraska in February, 1972. Initially, reports rumored that he was tortured and mutilated by white men in the town. It was soon revealed that he did not suffer from physical torture or mutilation, but that he was the target of a hate crime.
Four white men approached Raymond Yellow Thunder in town. All parties were intoxicated. The men beat Raymond stripped him of the bottom half of his clothing and put him in the trunk of their car. Raymond Yellow Thunder suffered other abuses before he was last seen by an American Indian boy who reported that Yellow Thunder told him that he was “beat by white men.” 24
Raymond Yellow Thunder was found eight days later dead him his pickup truck. The autopsy report found that he died from exposure and complications stemming from blunt force trauma to his head. AIM organizers demanded a second autopsy and it confirmed the findings of the first autopsy. Two of the four men were convicted of manslaughter and sentenced to six years and prison and two years in prison respectively. Each also received a $500 fine. American Indians were not convinced that justice was appropriately served.25
Well before the trial, AIM arrived in the town of Gordon within days of being notified that Raymond Yellow Thunder was killed. Nearly 1,400 American Indians from 80 different tribes and supported arrived in town to demonstrate and to take action. AIM and supporters boycotted certain establishments they found to be unwelcoming to American Indians. They also moved more than one-million dollars of tribal money out of the Gordon banks. Many residents stayed inside out of fear, unsure of what the American Indian group had in mind. AIM demanded justice through the criminal justice system.26 This caused political and economic strife in the town of Gordon.
In response, the town of Gordon agreed to create a human rights commission. They also disciplined an officer accused of mistreating American Indians while in custody. The governor stepped in well to ensure there was an investigation completed with integrity.
A strong message of intolerance of abusive practices was sent to Gordon and other border towns. In addition, the events in Gordon exposed a failed system of the BIA as it relates to tribal governments. Many American Indians felts that the tribal governments could have prevented the death of Raymond Yellow Thunder and similar incidents if they were running effectively. With their new voice, local American Indians openly spoke out against the Dick Wilson, the tribal leader. AIM shifted their attention to prepare for the next major movement.
The victory in Gordon solidified AIM as an empowering movement for American Indians. American Indians came together and policies changed based on their actions. The Gordon campaign encouraged American Indians all of the country. American Indians found power in standing together. AIM reached the rankings of being a credible organization that achieved results.
Wounded Knee
An indirect outcome of the Gordon Campaign was the voiced concerns over tribal government leadership. Dick Wilson was a name mentioned multiple times. Wilson was the Sioux tribal leader. American Indians under his leadership complained of corruption, abuses suffered by his opponents, and the failure of the U.S. government to fulfill treaties. After efforts to impeach Wilson failed AIM was contacted for support. AIM and other supporters planned a march to demonstrate protest to Wilson’s leadership. Wilson learned of the march and moved to federal lines for protection and support. Also, Wilson, already in conflict with AIM, banned all AIM activities. Understanding that AIM would not be able to demonstrate as planned, Russell Means set his sight on a nearby venue with historical significance. The American Indian Movement held Wounded Knee to force a federal investigation of the Dick Wilson administration, a federal investigation of other reservations, an investigation of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, and broken treaties.27
The original Wounded Knee massacre took place in 1890 on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation. American Indians were surrounded and there were orders to hand over weapons. There was a skirmish that broke out between a white man and Indian. An unknown shot was fired, which lead to the bloodshed. Over one-half of the 150 American Indians killed were women and children. The U.S. lost 25 soldiers. It is generally believed that the battle could have been avoided. Big Foot, the Lakota Sioux Chief, was surrounded, outnumbered and was believed to have complied with the directive issues by the U.S. government. It is rumored that the massacre was retaliation killing for the Plains Indians defeat of the U.S. army at Little Bighorn in 1876.
Nearly a century later, Russell Means and 200 AIM supports made their way to Wounded Knee and prepared for a siege. There were eleven hostages with the AIM group, but there has been a debate over whether or not they were hostages. A member from the hostage group noted they were free to leave, but decided to stay. Wilson and local troops soon surrounded Wounded Knee and preventing protesters from leaving and prevented sympathizers from getting in. The siege lasted for 71 days.28 Federal Marshals and National Guard members cut off water and electricity. In addition, there was an attempt to keep food from entering the Wounded Knee area. During one food drop, American Indians were fired upon as they ran from shelter to get food and supplies. On May 8, AIM surrendered after White House officials ensured the groups they would start the demanded investigations. American Indian Movement leaders Russell Means and Dennis Banks were arrested, but were later released after the finding that evidence was tampered with.
A quiet war continued with Dick Wilson after the Wounded Knee occupation dispersed. Several opponents of Wilson were killed in the years following the occupation. Today, the Pine Ridge Reservation is one of the poorest areas in the U.S. Adult unemployment rates are between 70-80%. A victory was claimed by AIM, but work still needs to be done.
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