Background
Claim-Evidence-Reasoning to Justify Claims
Bobrowsky proposes several criteria to teaching solid science, and not perpetuating the archaic “scientific method.11” First, he proposes that teaching methods should mirror real-world science investigations. Second, they should inspire student interest and enthusiasm, and thirdly, it should be supported by current science pedagogical research.12 One of the best ways to do this is the use of the CER (Claims-Evidence-Reasoning)13. See examples under “Engaging in Arguments” for how graphing can be utilized to inspire a Claim-Evidence-Reasoning response.
There is a misconception that students should “prove” their topic sentences, when in fact the protocol in science is to lend support-for or -against a claim. He recommends, “emphasizing to students that defending claims at all costs is not about science is about. Scientists are open to new ideas and even welcome being shown they are mistaken, because that’s when knowledge increases and science advances.14 ” This may include backing up a portion of scientific knowledge – “describing relevant evidence” but also in creating an appropriate claim15. Such tasks can be made into activities and can be used to show a connection between writing in the sciences and other areas. All Activities can be amplified to include supporting a claim with evidence and reasoning. This is an extension or requirement that will be seen throughout and can be applied to even activities not found under Teacher Resources.
Analysis of Collected Data
Data collection is essential in the pedagogy of scientific inquiry. However, it is not enough to simply collect the data. It must be debriefed. Ashbrook suggests that a scientific discussion of data can occur even in early childhood interactions.16 She suggests conversations with small groups (or even the entire class) asking for key ideas, patterns, and new queries. The goal is also to have students articulate their ideas in writing or verbally. Perhaps even in older students, who have not been trained to look at scientific data at an early age, a similar process must occur to develop their skill in a guided fashion before it can be expected independently in assignments and/or state science testing. Doto and Golbeck have students collect data in the form of photographs for elementary aged students.17 The collection of data is a rather lengthy process. Therefore, for multiple exposures within a unit, some data may be collected, while others may be presented.18
Peer Data Analysis Critique
When students enter the science classroom, they have various levels of science and mathematics readiness and skill.19 Clary and Wandersee recognized that although they used published data and also student generated data, students “needed additional practice in generating and interpreting data.20” Their students favored multiple choice questions, so they needed a process to teach students graphical creating and analysis skills. They utilized Microsoft Excel and a Random Number Generator to create individual data sets. After experiencing a hands-on fossil activity, students received their unique sets of data. On the next class, they received a peer’s data set and analysis. The goal was to submit an evaluation of their peer two days later.
According to Clary and Wandersee, high school students exceled at the assignments and thought it was personally relevant. Students gave positive feedback to their peers, and ownership of each data set was taken. Teachers allowed them to give anonymous feedback. Overall, this technique seemed valuable and beneficial for students and teachers21. Ostroff suggests that classroom dialogue helps students with learning and cognition.22 Participation in discussions can utilize all the cognitive functions and improve student performance. “Dialogue is one of the few pedagogies that truly empowers and transforms learners.”23 Discussions help not simply cognition, but also the building of community.
Deeper Dive into Discussions
It is important to consider whether discussions will be graded, and if that grade will be individualized. Grading can create accountability. However, individual accountability can change how discussions occur in the community science environment. Wiggins suggests a group grade for discussions. She recommends a “symbolic grade,” so that individual grades are not unfairly weighted. However, she utilizes a spider web discussion model, which encourages asking dynamic questions and directing the group back to the text. Speaking and listening more is also encouraged.24 Discussion is key to facilitating the key places students should look, before they develop their own self talk. As all the Teaching Activities feature data, discussions can be implemented in a small group fashion to help coach students. Activity #4 has students collecting their own data, as well.
Generating and Answering Student Questions about Data
Moore and Huber have another process to determine “productive questions” for data analysis in middle school classrooms.25 Students can create their own or they can use resources in the classroom to generate answers – such as textbook or specially chosen articles. However, in their method, students must be taught how to manipulate spreadsheets – which may prove challenging for students with technology or cognitive challenges. Perhaps these students can be given data with less difficulty or complexity as a modification to their learning process.
Another possibility is having students graphing their ideas in advance of the collection of data, such as in the Connery’s article.26 Connery states that students can collect data, but do not really have an understanding about what the line on the graph means, without intervention. Connery states that graphing in advance of collecting data is extremely beneficial when the goal of the lab is to figure out what the relationship is between two variables.27 This lends itself very well to the physical sciences. However, determining the independent and dependent variables of an activity, and even a working hypothesis, may be very useful in the 7th grade Life Science in preparation for the physical sciences in the 8th grade.
The clarification of when to use a bar, line, pie, or scatterplot should be utilized before diving into the first learning activity, but AFTER the Pre-Assessment. There should also be some discussion of independent variable, dependent variables, direct relationships, and inverse relationships. These are easy topics to review, integrating into a warm up or exit ticket throughout the course.
The Nature of Science and Data Analysis
Science has been traditionally introduced using “The Scientific Method.” However, there is no one Scientific Method. Many pieces of scientific knowledge could not be acquired by conducting an experiment (ie: stars moving toward or away from earth), nor is it feasible that all data is collected planned (ie: the effects of a drug on human fetuses). Although, quite common – it is ineffective for teaching experimental design.28 It is through experimentation and research discussions that opportunities to learn experimental design are amplified. Explicitly teaching how to analyze data is imperative.
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