The Art of Writing and Revision

Unit Content

Renaissance: History and Figures

I will choose some of the most influential figures from the Renaissance whose lives and achievements provide rich, developmentally appropriate entry points into history for my students to explore their creativity and rhetorical expression. These figures were chosen not only because of their personal experiences through art, science, leadership, or personal struggle, but also because they offer tangible elements to explore in adopting their voices through letter writing. And they are as follows:

1. Leonardo Da Vinci, who could be called a true Renaissance man, whose multidisciplinary genius still inspires innovation today. His notebooks, filled with anatomical sketches, mechanical designs, and reflections, serve as both a means of scientific inquiry and a personal meditation. His curiosity made him a significant figure in history. Students will read an excerpt from a letter he wrote around 1482 to Ludovico Sforza, the Duke of Milan, in which he promotes himself as a military engineer, using his persuasive skills:

Excerpt:

“Monseigneur,

Convinced that the pretenses of all those who call themselves masters in the art of inventing implements of war, in reality nothing useful or new is accomplished that is not already common, I hasten at present, without wishing to harm anyone, to unveil my secrets to Your Glory and, if it pleases you, to bring them to fruition; for I dare to hope that all the things I submit in this short letter will achieve the desired result.

1. know how to construct very light bridges, which can be easily transported from one place to another, and with the help of which it often becomes possible to pursue the enemy and put him to flight. The same are very safe and protected against fire, and resistant in water. They are easily broken open and demolished. I have also found a means to destroy and set fire to the enemy's bridges.
2. I have found a means to drain the waters in a siege, to make drop bridges and a number of instruments for such occasion.
3. If the height of the walls or the strength of the position of a place does not allow to approach in a siege with the cannons, I have found a means to ruin any tower or other fortification as soon as it is not built on rocks.
4. I also know how to manufacture a kind of bombarde, very light and convenient to transport, which shoots inflammable substances to spread terror among the enemy with the help of a great smoke, causing them damage and disorder.” ¹¹

Why/analysis of the excerpt: Students here will closely examine the persuasive elements in Leonardo da Vinci’s letter to Ludovico, particularly the tone, structure, and word choices he uses to present himself as the ideal military engineer and why he should be hired to build machines for war. Students will notice how Leonardo uses a respectful but confident tone to stand out. He says that most people who claim to be experts do not really offer anything new – and then he offers his own creative ideas, like light, fireproof bridges that can be moved around quickly, machines to break down walls, and even devices that create smoke to confuse the enemy.

Students will also look at how Leonardo makes himself sound smart and trustworthy by giving clear examples of what he can do. This is how he builds ethos, or credibility. In this same excerpt, students will find logos by noticing how he uses facts and step-by-step explanations to prove he is the right person for the job. Instead of just saying “I’m a great engineer," Leonardo gives a list of specific inventions he can build. For example, he describes bridges that are strong, safe, and easy to move, and even machines that can destroy enemy towers. These examples show his thinking and problem-solving skills. Each idea matches a real problem that a leader like Ludovico would want to solve in battle. The order in which the ideas are presented is clear and explains how each invention works, so that means Leonardo uses logic and reason to make his argument believable to a reader, creating trust in what he is saying.

2. Raphael, known for his harmonious compositions in painting, wrote letters that reflect his commitment to beauty and artistic legacy. Raphael’s work reflects the harmony, clarity, and beauty that define the High Renaissance, and he remains a symbol of artistic excellence. In a letter to Pope Leo X, Raphael writes about preserving the ancient architecture:

“Most Holy Father, there are many who, on bringing their feeble judgment to bear on what is written concerning the great achievements of the Romans—the feats of arms, the city of Rome and the wondrous skill shown in the opulence, ornamentation and grandeur of their buildings— have come to the conclusion that these achievements are more likely to be fables than facts. I, however, have always seen—and still do see—things differently. For, bearing in mind the divine quality of the ancients’ minds as revealed in the remains still to be seen among the ruins of Rome, I do not find it unreasonable to believe that much of what we consider impossible seemed, to them, exceedingly simple.” ¹²

Raphael and Baldassarre Castiglione, letter to Leo X, 1519.

Why/analysis of the excerpt: In this excerpt, students will examine how Raphael uses both emotional and logical appeals to persuade Pope Leo X to protect ancient Roman architecture. Through pathos, he evokes admiration and cultural pride, describing the ruins with phrases like “wondrous skill” (extraordinary expertise), “opulence,” and “divine quality of the ancients’ minds.” These phrases are meant to inspire amazement and stir a sense of duty to preserve the past. Additionally, students can also find elements of logos – the appeal to reason – woven into his argument. Raphael points out that some people doubt the greatness of ancient Rome because its achievements seem too impressive to be real, calling them “more likely to be fables than facts.”

He then counters this belief with logical reasoning: the evidence of the Romans’ brilliance still stands in the form of ruins. He argues that the ancients’ advanced thinking made what seems impossible to us feel “exceedingly simple” to them. This line encourages readers to consider the visible proof of Roman ingenuity and to trust reason over disbelief.

This passage also provides an interesting opportunity for students to explore the Bouba and Kiki effect – how the shape and sound of words can evoke emotional responses according to studies suggesting “that the ‘‘Bouba–Kiki’’ effect might result from contiguous areas of the brain processing the visual outline of the shape (rounded/ star-shape) and the rounded or angular appearance of the speaker’s lips when enunciating the vowels.” ¹³ Bouba sounds are soft, rounded, and gentle, often using open vowels and voiced consonants like m, l, w, or oo. Rods like wondrous, opulence, and divine feel smooth and flowing, mirroring the grandeur and beauty of the architecture being described. Kiki sounds, by contrast, are sharp, jagged, and abrupt, using hard consonants like k, t, and p. In the phrase “feeble judgement” or the word “facts,” the sharper sounds bring a more critical tone. When students pay attention to how these sounds feel in their mouths or ears, they can start to sense the mood and emotional weight of the language, even before fully understanding the meaning. This builds a deeper awareness of how sound supports tone and persuasion.

3. Michelangelo was a master of both sculpture and painting. The Sistine Chapel showcases, for instance, the skillful expression of movement and emotions that he could capture. He was also well known for his powerful and personal letters. These letters, often addressed to family members or patrons, reveal how he felt the pressure of artistic responsibility, and the demands placed on him by those in power (patronage). In one vivid letter to his friend Giovanni da Pistoia, Michelangelo describes the physical pain and emotional strain he experienced while painting the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. Far from the calm image many may imagine of an artist at work, Michelangelo paints a very different picture – with words – showing just how difficult and exhausting the process really was: 

Excerpt:

I've already grown a goiter from this torture,

hunched up here like a cat in Lombardy

(or anywhere else where the stagnant water's poison).

My stomach's squashed under my chin, my beard's

pointing at heaven, my brain's crushed in a casket,

my breast twists like a harpy's. My brush,

above me all the time, dribbles paint

so my face makes a fine floor for droppings! ¹⁴

Why/analysis of the excerpt: this excerpt will give students a dramatic and honest glimpse into Michelangelo’s emotional and physical state during one of the most famous art projects in history. His voice is full of frustration, discomfort, and sometimes even humor. The tone is exaggerated but also deeply human. It is interesting to notice how he uses vivid imagery to describe how twisted and uncomfortable his body feels.  Phrases like “my beard's pointing at heaven” and “my brain's crushed in a casket” help readers picture his agony while working overhead. This is a wonderful opportunity for students to explore figures of speech like metaphor, as Michelangelo compares himself to twisted creatures like “harpy,” and uses hyperbole to dramatize his suffering.

Anaphora, the repetition of sentence beginnings, is also evident in the repeated sentence structure of this excerpt: “My stomach's... my chin... my beard's... my brain's... my breast twists...” This pattern adds rhythm and builds intensity in his complaints. Michelangelo’s use of voice and tone shows that writing does not have to be formal to be meaningful. His letters will be a learning opportunity to observe that expressive, even messy writing can still be powerful when there is a clear intention – and that sharing real emotions can connect a writer to a reader across centuries.

4. Catherine De Medici was an important leader in France during the 1500s. She was part of the powerful Medici family, known for supporting the arts and education. Even though she lived in a time of conflict and political problems, Catherine used writing – especially letters – to lead and solve problems. Her letters were not just personal notes; they were tools for making important decisions, giving advice, and sharing her ideas. She helped shape culture by encouraging art, building projects, and making smart political choices. This makes her a valuable figure for this curriculum unit as it presents a female influential figure who employs rhetorical strategies to command authority while balancing political tensions:

Excerpt:

Why/analysis of the excerpt:

“I beg you, Monsieur de Forquevauls, to make the queen, my daughter, to whom you will first show the memorandum that I am sending you, written by my hand, understand the good that may particularly come to herself and to her children in finding wives for her brothers, so that she may have in all events, as has happened to others, more means of helping herself and her said children, and make it well understood and considered by her. You will also show the memorandum to the king, her husband, and to the Duke of Alba, if he commands you, and to Ruy Gomez, even if he does not tell you. And I beg you to behave yourself in it in such a way that, if possible, you may come to some good conclusion.” ¹⁵

Why/analysis of the excerpt: In this excerpt, students will analyze how Catherine De’ Medici uses strategic, layered rhetoric to persuade her trusted envoy while maintaining political tact. She commands authority through ethos, speaking not only as Queen but as a mother deeply invested in her family's future. Her reasoning demonstrates logos, especially in her argument that arranging marriages for her daughter's brothers will create long-term security for the queen and her children. Catherine writes, “the good that may particularly come to herself and to her children in finding wives for her brothers,” showing how she appeals to future benefits and political alliances in a clear, structured way. She carefully explains the logical outcomes of such actions, which reveals her diplomatic intelligence.

Students will also notice the use of polite command when Catherine uses repetition through formal phrasing, especially in the structure “I beg you...” at both the beginning and end. This rhetorical strategy – epanalepsis (resumption, repetition) ¹⁶ or repeating the same phrase to frame a point – emphasizes urgency while maintaining decorum. She also employs parallel structure in phrases like “you will show... to the king...to the Duke... to Ruy Gomez,” reinforcing her control over the flow of communication while carefully navigating rank and status. This demonstrates how a writer can balance authority and diplomacy, even when giving subtle orders. Students can study this excerpt of the complete letter to see how persuasive writing isn't always loud or emotional – it can be firm, strategic, and respectful, especially when the writer considers relations, tone and long-term impact.

5. Queen Elizabeth I ruled England during a time of great change, exploration, and creativity, often called the “Golden Age.” She was a powerful leader who supported writers like William Shakespeare and explorers who opened new worlds. Her strength was not only in politics or the arts – it was also in her ability to communicate through words. Her speeches and letters show courage, loyalty, and dedication to her people. One of the most famous moments of leadership came when England faced the threat of invasion by Spain. Instead of hiding behind her advisors, Elizabeth stood before her troops at Tilbury and gave a speech that combined honesty, courage, and determination. She showed that words can be as strong as weapons. This speech is an excellent example for students to see how great leaders use writing and speaking to encourage others, build confidence, and unite people for a common goal. Her famous address to the troops at Tilbury includes:

Excerpt:

“My loving people,

We have been persuaded by some that are careful of our safety, to take heed how we commit our selves to armed multitudes, for fear of treachery; but I assure you I do not desire to live to distrust my faithful and loving people. Let tyrants fear. I have always so behaved myself that, under God, I have placed my chiefest strength and safeguard in the loyal hearts and good-will of my subjects; and therefore I am come amongst you, as you see, at this time, not for my recreation and disport, but being resolved, in the midst and heat of the battle, to live and die amongst you all; to lay down for my God, and for my kingdom, and my people, my honour and my blood, even in the dust.

I know I have the body but of a weak and feeble woman; but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a king of England too, and think foul scorn that Parma or Spain, or any prince of Europe, should dare to invade the borders of my realm: to which rather than any dishonour shall grow by me, I myself will take up arms, I myself will be your general, judge, and rewarder of every one of your virtues in the field.” ¹⁷

Analysis of the excerpt: Students here will analyze how her choice of words – like “heart” and “stomach of a king” - creates confidence and pride. Her use of the word “king” instead of “queen” is also a historical clue, showing how she claimed authority in a time when women were not often seen as leaders. Persuasive writing is evident in this. Text as well and can be used as a mentor text for persuasive writing. Students could take elements from this speech to write a short speech in which they inspire others to face a challenge, using some of Elizabeth’s strategies, like repeating “I” statements: “I myself will take up arms, I myself will be your general” to show determination or using strong action verbs that show bravery.

6. Artemisia Gentileschi was one of the first well-known female painters of the Renaissance. Her dramatic paintings of strong women from history and mythology made her a famous artist. She was also resilient and courageous, as she overcame barriers in a male-dominated art world to become a respected and influential artist. Lavinia Fontana was another successful female painter, known for her detailed portraits and religious scenes. She balanced her artistic career with family life, a rare feat for women at the time. She broke social expectations and opened doors for future generations of women artists. Both artists offer essential perspectives as female artists navigating male-dominated spheres; however, I chose Artemisia’s excerpts so students can focus on the way she wrote to patrons, often asserting her right to be judged by her work, not her gender. Some examples include:

Excerpts:

(Letter from Artemisia Gentileschi to Don Antonio Ruffo, 7 August 1649)

‘I will show Your Illustrious Lordship what a woman can do’

(Letter from Artemisia Gentileschi to Don Antonio Ruffo, 13 November 1649)

‘with me Your Lordship will not lose and you will find the spirit of Caesar in the soul of a woman’

(Letter from Artemisia Gentileschi to Don Antonio Ruffo, 30 January 1649)

‘…a woman’s name raises doubts until her work is seen…’

(Artemisia Gentileschi - From a letter to Don Antonio Ruffo, 1593-c. 1653)

I have received a letter of October 26th, which I deeply appreciated, particularly noting how my master always concerns himself with favoring me, contrary to my merit. In it, you tell me about that gentleman who wishes to have some paintings by me, that he would like a Galatea and a Judgment of Paris, and that the Galatea should be different from the one that Your Most illustrious Lordship owns. There was no need for you to urge me to do this, since by the grace of God and the Most Holy Virgin, they [clients] come to a woman with this kind of talent, that is, to vary the subjects in my painting; never has anyone found in my pictures any repetition of invention, not even of one hand. As for the fact that this gentleman wishes to know the price before the work is done, ...I do it most unwillingly. ...I never quote a price for my works until they are done. However, since Your Most illustrious Lordship wants me to do this, I will do what you command...

 If I were a man, I can't imagine it would have turned out this way…. I must caution Your Most illustrious Lordship that when I ask a price, I don't follow the custom in Naples, where they ask thirty and then give it for four. I am Roman, and therefore I shall act always in the Roman manner.” ¹⁸

Why/analysis of the excerpts: the excerpts from Artemisia Gentileschi’s letters allow students to closely examine how language can be used to challenge injustice and assert one’s identity. Artemisia was one of the well-known female painters in Renaissance Italy, and her letters to patrons –especially Don Antonio Ruffo – show her determination to be respected for her talent and skill. Students will analyze how she uses bold and declarative language to make her case. In the statement “I will show Your Illustrious Lordship what a woman can do,” Artemisia directly challenges expectations placed on women of her time. This is a clear example of voice and conviction. In “you will find the spirit of Caesar in the soul of a woman,” she uses a classical reference to Caesar – known for leadership and power – to create a metaphor that elevates her identity. This shows how she used logos (referencing a known symbol of greatness) and ethos (establishing her authority) to persuade her patron. Students can also discuss the line “a woman’s name raises doubts until her work is seen,” which highlights the prejudice women faced and the pressure to prove themselves. This line is a good example to open a conversation about fairness, reputation, and visibility – topics that are still relevant today.

In the letter to Don Antonio Ruffo (1593-c. 1653) students will analyze how she uses declarative language to assert authority. For example, when she explains that “never has anyone found in my pictures any repetition of invention,” she is defending her originality and establishing her professional ethos. Her refusal to quote a price before the work is finished also demonstrates her confidence in her craft to be valued fairly.  In addition, her remark, “I am Roman, and therefore I shall act always in the Roman manner,” uses cultural identity to reinforce her credibility and standards of integrity.

Students will not only analyze Renaissance letters and speeches for meaning and rhetorical strategies but will also imitate them in a sequence of assignments that will build toward a culminating performance. To begin, while studying Leonardo da Vinci’s letters requesting patronage, students will compose a letter of application to a Renaissance court, highlighting their own skills and talents and modeling his use of ethos through careful self-presentation. Next, after reading Queen Elizabeth I’s Tilbury Speech, students will draft a short speech meant to inspire others to face a personal or collective challenge, practicing repetition and strong action verbs to convey determination. Building on this, Catherine de’ Medici’s political letters will serve as mentor texts for writing persuasive appeal to a modern audience, and students could experiment with logos and tone of authority as well. Following Raphael’s letters to Pope Leo X can be used as models of advocacy for the arts; students might write a persuasive letter to our school principal making the case for an after-school art program, music class, or an art club, imitating Raphael’s respectful tone and reasoned appeals. Finally, after examining Artemisia Gentileschi’s correspondence, students will write a personal letter that incorporates emotional appeals and vivid imagery to advocate for fairness or recognition. Through this progression, students gradually develop their rhetorical skills, and at the same time these scaffolded assignments will prepare them for the culminating project: a historically grounded letter written in the voice of their chosen Renaissance figure.

Writing in the Renaissance:

In designing this curriculum unit, I drew inspiration from classical rhetoric – not as a set of rigid rules, but as a collection of qualities that will help students be more intentional with communication. These five qualities (five canons) include invention (coming up with ideas), arrangement (organizing thoughts clearly), Style (language choice), memory (drawing on what one knows), and delivery (presenting ideas with purpose and voice). These rhetorical elements remain relevant and accessible when framed as tools that guide expression and persuasion. As Watson describes what Cicero first defined in 55 BCE, “when preparing to speak to an audience to persuade them...the development of that idea should follow a prescribed pattern: invention arrangement, style, memory, and delivery.” These qualities connect to the goal of this unit, which uses real letters that were not written as school assignments but as real high-stakes communication. ¹⁹

Rhetoric:

The popularity of the printing press encouraged the development of rhetoric in places where local languages flourished, and knowledge was more accessible to a broader audience.  As I developed this unit, I found it interesting how the printing press not only spread ideas but also shaped how people communicated and persuaded one another. With texts becoming more widely available, especially in the vernacular, rhetoric was no longer limited to elites trained in Latin. People now had the means to read, respond to, and engage in public discourse. This shift helped democratize persuasion itself, making rhetorical skill more important than ever for writers, thinkers, and political figures alike. In fact, the printing press played a significant role in advancing rhetorical education by encouraging new genres of writing such as pamphlets, treatises, and letters, which often required a clear argument and a sense of audience. ²⁰ Personal letters were most often handwritten and sent to only one person, yet the intellectual atmosphere created by the printing press may have influenced even these private forms of communication.

In designing this unit, I chose to emphasize ethos and pathos because they appeal most directly to the human connection at the heart of communication. Teaching ethos helps students consider how their credibility and choices shape how readers receive their messages. Pathos, meanwhile, encourages empathy and emotional awareness, allowing students to explore how words can make others feel something meaningful. However, I have also found that logos – the appeal to logic and reason – is equally worth exploring with students. It challenges them to build clear, organized arguments that are supported by evidence. During this unit, students are encouraged to notice how Renaissance figures like Leonardo da Vinci and Catherine de’ Medici used logic in their letters to persuade their audiences, often through practical reasoning or cause-and-effect structures. Logos give students a framework for structuring their thoughts, and it reminds them that strong communication balances emotion with clarity and logic. Teaching all three – ethos, pathos, and logos – offers a better understanding of how rhetoric worked in the past and how it can still be used with purpose today.

In a world where students communicate rapidly through phones and social media, this unit invites them to slow down and explore rhetoric as an art of purposeful persuasion, as it was practiced through letters and books during the 1500s. By embodying Renaissance figures and writing letters with a clear audience, message, and purpose, students will engage with the classical elements of rhetoric mentioned before: Ethos (credibility), Pathos (emotion), and Logos (reason). By paying close attention to their sentences, their voice, and their perspective, students will learn about history and also learn from other human experiences, and from a time when there was a blooming interest in curiosity, change, and expression.

This approach aligns with current research on effective writing instruction in its emphasis on the importance of writing in authentic contexts and developing a voice, structure, and argumentation. (Graham & Harris, 2013). Historical letter writing requires students to consider not only what they say, but also how they say it. Writing from a historical perspective also challenges students to analyze primary sources, synthesize information, and creatively apply it, transforming research into voice-driven, persuasive communication.

Humanism and Secular Learning:

Grounded in my study of Renaissance Humanism, another one of my findings was about the growth of secular learning during the 1500s, which refers to the belief that human potential and the study of classical texts are dedicated to moral and civic growth. The study of classical texts was not just for knowledge, but for moral, civic, and personal development. Humanists believed that ancient authors offered timeless wisdom that could shape virtuous individuals and responsible citizens. This perspective also marked a turning point in history, allowing society to return to its Greek and Roman origins and view authors like Plato from a more critical perspective.

Education in the Renaissance was not based on religious teachings or doctrines. It focused more on learning subjects such as science, math, history, literature, and the arts from a non-religious perspective. There was a transition from a focus on religious influence in teaching to one on critical thinking, skills, or knowledge, and the goal of my unit is to teach students critical thinking, academic skills, and knowledge that are independent of any particular faith or spiritual belief system. An interesting quote that supports this states that:

“The impact of so many minds on men who read authors not merely with admiration for their knowledge or their particular expertise, but as models from whim to learn about statecraft, the waging of war, the creation of works of art and the more important art of bearing up under adversity: This impact had made humanism into a cultural force” ²¹

During this period, education and expression began to shift. Hale captures in this quote why humanism was not just an intellectual movement, but a cultural force that shaped how people learned, wrote, and saw themselves, during the European Renaissance, and it speaks to one of the key ideas in this curriculum unit: that reading and writing are not just academic exercises, but ways to express and understand how to live, lead and endure. The authors of the letters’ excerpts – were not admired simply for their knowledge but because they modeled thoughtfulness, creativity, resilience, and leadership.

Letter Writing:

Engaging fifth-grade students in metacognitive reflection deepens their understanding of writing as both a craft and a tool for expression. When students read historical letters and then create their own, they will see writing not just as a task, but as a purposeful act – something shaped by audience, voice, and intention. They will start asking questions like, “How do I want my reader to feel?” or “What tone should I use here?” This kind of thinking will help them grow as writers and as thoughtful readers of their own work and others.’

Learning to write a letter becomes the heart of this unit, and this learning becomes a process when students understand its structure and purpose. As we explore different types of letters – such as friendly, persuasive, or formal – students learn to adapt their tone or voice depending on the audience. They come to see how even small word choices carry meaning and help deliver the message effectively. Students will meet their goal of leaving this unit, seeing writing as a living, thinking process – one where their ideas matter and their words carry weight. Through modeling and practice, they will gain familiarity with the five essential parts of a letter:

1. The heading, which includes the date, sometimes the address.
2. The greeting, which sets the tone and addresses the reader.
3. The body, where the message is developed with purpose and detail.
4. The closing, which offers a thoughtful sign-off.
5. The signature, which gives the letter a personal or formal touch.