Notes
[1] Stephanie Kramer and Jeffrey S. Passel, “What the Data Says about Immigrants in the U.S.,” Pew Research Center, August 21, 2025, https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2025/08/21/key-findings-about-us-immigrants/.
[2] Maria R. Coady, The Coral Way Bilingual Program (Bristol: Multilingual Matters, 2020), 35-37.
[3] Ibid., 31.
[4] Heather McMahon, “The History of the Latino Community of Washington, D.C. 1943-1991: Historic Context Study” (Washington, D.C.: District of Columbia Office of Planning, June 1, 2025), 84, https://planning.dc.gov/sites/default/files/dc/sites/op/publication/attachments/The%20History%20of%20the%20Latino%20Community%20of%20Washington%2C%20D.C.%201943-1991.pdf.
[5] Juan González, Harvest of Empire: A History of Latinos in America (New York: Penguin Books, 2022), 145.
[6] District of Columbia Office of the State Superintendent of Education, “Washington, DC K-12 Social Studies Standards,” 2023, 22, https://osse.dc.gov/sites/default/files/dc/sites/osse/page_content/attachments/Adopted%20Standards.pdf.
[7] Associated Press, “A Law Enforcement Surge Has Taken a Toll on Children of Immigrants in D.C. Schools,” NBC News, September 17, 2025, https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/law-enforcement-surge-taken-toll-children-immigrants-washington-school-rcna231849
[8] Justine Cortez (Bancroft Program Coordinator), interview by author, Washington, D.C., May 27, 2026; Ellie Sarnoff (Bancroft Elementary School Counselor), interview by author, Washington, D.C., June 1, 2026; Panorama Education, “Bancroft Elementary School: Spring 2025-Fall 2025,” accessed July 12, 2026, https://secure.panoramaed.com/dcps/understand/3505998/summary (login required).
[9] Office of the State Superintendent of Education, “Washington, DC K-12 Social Studies Standards,” 20.
[10] U.S. Census Bureau, “New Report on the Nation’s Foreign-Born Population,” Census.gov, April 9, 2024, https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2024/foreign-born-population.html.
[11] District of Columbia Public Schools, “DC Public Schools Fast Facts 2025” (Washington, D.C.: DCPS, 2025), https://dcps.dc.gov/sites/default/files/dc/sites/dcps/publication/attachments/2025%20DCPS%20Fast%20Facts.pdf.
[12] District of Columbia Public Schools, “Dual Language Programs,” DC.gov, accessed July 11, 2026, https://dcps.dc.gov/DL.
[13] Bancroft Elementary School, “Our History,” accessed July 12, 2026, https://www.bancroftelementary.org/apps/pages/index.jsp?uREC_ID=319662&type=d.
[14] District of Columbia Public Schools, “School Profiles Home,” profiles.dcps.dc.gov, accessed July 12, 2026, https://profiles.dcps.dc.gov/Bancroft+Elementary+School.
[15] District of Columbia Public Schools, “Dual Language Programs.”
[16] Bancroft Elementary School, “Bancroft Bilingual Elementary School,” accessed July 12, 2026, https://www.bancroftelementary.org/apps/pages/index.jsp?urec_id=319988&type=d.
[17] Ibid.
[18] Ibid.
[19] Terry Repak, Waiting on Washington: Central American Workers in the Nation’s Capital (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995), 2.
[20] Ana Patricia Rodríguez, Avocado Dreams: Remaking Salvadoran Life and Art in the Washington, D.C. Metro Area (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2025), 8.
[21]Leisy J. Abrego, Sacrificing Families: Navigating Laws, Labor, and Love Across Borders (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2014), 12; Jessica Morales (Bancroft Elementary School Principal), interview by author, Washington, D.C., June 17, 2026.
[22] McMahon, “The History of the Latino Community,” 113.
[23] Merriam-Webster, “Barrio,” accessed July 12, 2026, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/barrio.
[24] Rodríguez, Avocado Dreams, 8, 32.
[25] McMahon, 113.
[26] Katarina Brito (DCPS Bilingual Program Developer), e-mail to author in response to follow-up questions, May 15, 2026; Morales, interview.
[27] Morales, interview.
[28] Brito, email message to author.
[29] Brito, email message to author; Morales, interview.
[30] Morales, interview.
[31] Brito, email message to author.
[32] Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire, 82.
[33] Ibid.
[34] Ibid.
[35] Ibid.
[36] Ibid.
[37] Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire, 83.
[38] Ibid.
[39] Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire, 84.
[40] Ibid.
[41] Ibid.
[42] Ibid.
[43] Ibid.
[44] Ibid.
[45] Ibid.
[46] Ibid.
[47] Ibid.
[48] Ibid.
[49] Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire, 85.
[50] Ibid.
[51] Ibid.
[52] Ibid.
[53] Ibid.
[54] Ibid.
[55] Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire, 147.
[56] Ibid.
[57] Ibid.
[58] Ibid.
[59] Ibid.
[60] Ibid.
[61] Ibid.
[62] Ibid.
[63] Ibid.
[64] Aviva Chomsky, Central America’s Forgotten History: Revolution, Violence, and the Roots of Migration (Boston: Beacon Press, 2021), 65.
[65] Ibid.
[66] Ibid.
[67] Ibid.
[68] Albert Laguna (Professor of American Studies and Ethnicity, Race, & Migration, Yale University), conversation with author, July 16, 2027; Laguna, conversation with author, July 17, 2026.
[69] Chomsky, Central America’s Forgotten History, 66-67.
[70] Ibid., 67.
[71] Chomsky, Central America’s Forgotten History, 68.
[72] Chomsky, Central America’s Forgotten History, 68; Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire, 69.
[73] Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire, 148.
[74] Ibid., 144.
[75] Ibid., 148.
[76] Cecilia Menjívar, Fragmented Ties: Salvadoran Immigrant Networks in America (Berkeley, Calif. Univ. Of California Press, 2006), 39.
[77] Ibid., 39-40.
[78] Chomsky, Central America’s Forgotten History, 29.
[79] Ibid.
[80] Ibid.
[81] Ibid.
[82] Chomsky, 29; Menjívar, Fragmented Ties, 40.
[83] Chomsky, Central America’s Forgotten History, 29.
[84] Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire, 148.
[85] Ibid., 149.
[86] Ibid.
[87] Ibid.
[88] Ibid.
[89] Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire, 150.
[90] Ibid.
[91] Ibid.
[92] Ibid.
[93] Ibid.
[94] Abrego, Sacrificing Families, 12-13.
[95] Menjívar, Fragmented Ties, 6.
[96] Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire, 144.
[97] Ibid., 150.
[98] Ibid.
[99] Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire, 150-151.
[100] Ibid., 151.
[101] Ibid.
[102] Ibid.
[103] Ibid.
[104] Ibid.
[105] Ibid.
[106] Ibid.
[107] Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire, 152.
[108] Ibid
[109] Ibid.
[110] Ibid.
[111] Ibid.
[112] Ibid.
[113] Ibid., Harvest of Empire, 153.
[114] Ibid.
[115] Ibid.
[116] Ibid.
[117] Ibid.
[118] Ibid.
[119] Ibid.
[120] Ibid.
[121] Ibid.
[122] Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire, 154.
[123] Virginia Garrard-Burnett, Terror in the Land of the Holy Spirit: Guatemala Under General Efraín Ríos Montt, 1982-1983 (New York; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 6.
[124] Ibid., 7.
[125] Commission for Historical Clarification, Guatemala: Memory of Silence; Report of the Commission for Historical Clarification, Conclusions and Recommendations (1999), 30, https://hrdag.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/CEHreport-english.pdf.CEHreport-english.pdf.
[126] Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire,144.
[127] Ibid., 154.
[128] Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire, 154.
[129] National Archives Foundation. “Refugee Act Of 1980.” Last modified August 22, 2024. https://archivesfoundation.org/documents/refugee-act-1980/; Menjívar, Fragmented Ties, 78.
[130] Abrego, Sacrificing Families, 7.
[131] Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire, 155.
[132] Gonzalez, 155; Abrego, Sacrificing Families, 7.
[133] Ibid.
[134] Ibid.
[135] Aviva Chomsky, “They Take Our Jobs!” And 20 Other Myths about Immigration (Beacon Press, 2018), 72.
[136] Ibid.
[137] Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire, 146.
[138] Ibid., 147.
[139] Ibid., 147.
[140] William Deane Stanley, “Economic Migrants or Refugees from Violence? A Time-Series Analysis of Salvadoran Migration to the United States,” Latin American Research Review 22, no. 1 (1987): 132, https://doi.org/10.1017/s0023879100016459; Menjívar, Fragmented Ties, 80, 82.
[141] Ibid.
[142] Dean, 133.
[143] Abrego, Sacrificing Families, 13-14.
[144] Menjívar, Fragmented Ties, 79.
[145] Ibid.
[146] Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire, 158; Abrego, Sacrificing Families, 7.
[147] Gonzalez, 158.
[148] Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire, 159; Menjívar, Fragmented Ties, 80, 85.
[149] Ibid.
[150] Ibid.
[151] Ibid.
[152] Mauricio Espinoza, Arely Rosales, and Ignacio Sarmiento, Central American Migrations in the Twenty-First Century (University of Arizona Press, 2023), 12.
[153] Ibid., 21.
[154] Ibid., 14.
[155] Ibid.
[156] Ibid.
[157] Mauricio Espinoza, Arely Rosales, and Ignacio Sarmiento, Central American Migrations in the Twenty-First Century, 12.
[158] Ibid., 13.
[159] Ibid., 15.
[160] Ibid., 16.
[161] “Maquiladora,” Encyclopedia Britannica, accessed August 3, 2026, https://www.britannica.com/technology/maquiladora; Chomsky, Central America’s Forgotten History, 191.
[162] Ibid., 191-192.
[163] Ibid., 192.
[164] Ibid.
[165] Ibid.
[166] Chomsky, Central America’s Forgotten History, 213-214.
[167] Ibid, 214.
[168] David Bacon, “If San Pedro Sula is the Murder Capital of the World, Who Made it That Way?” American Prospect, June 13, 2019, quoted in Aviva Chomsky, Central America’s Forgotten History, 15; Chomsky. 215.
[169] Ibid.
[170] Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire, 330.
[171] Ibid.
[172] Ibid.
[173] Ibid.
[174] Gonzalez, 331.
[175] Ibid.
[176] “Juan Orlando Hernández, Former President of Honduras, Sentenced to 45 Years in Prison for Conspiring to Distribute More Than 400 Tons of Cocaine and Related Firearms Offenses,” Justice.Gov, June 26, 2024, https://www.justice.gov/usao-sdny/pr/juan-orlando-hernandez-former-president-honduras-sentenced-45-years-prison-conspiring; Associated Press, “Former Honduran President Juan Orlando Hernández Released from Prison After Trump Pardon,” NBC News, December 2, 2025, https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/trump-administration/former-honduran-president-juan-orlando-hernandez-freed-trump-pardon-rcna246968.
[177] Gonzalez, 331.
[178] Andrew Woe, The Republican Party and Immigration Politics: From Proposition 187 to George W. Bush (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 9.
[179] Woe, The Republican Party and Immigration Politics, 192.
[180] Ibid.
[181] Woe, The Republican Party and Immigration Politics, 180,182.
[182] Homeland Security Act of 2002, Public Law 107-296; Abrego, Sacrificing Families, 8.
[183] Homeland Security Act of 2002.
[184] Ibid.
[185] Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire, 217.
[186] Jonathan Blitzer, Everyone Who Is Gone Is Here: The United States, Central America, and the Making of a Crisis (New York: Penguin Press, 2024), 290.
[187] Ibid.
[188] Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire, 218.
[189] Ibid.
[190] Ibid.
[191] Chomsky, Undocumented, 200-201.
[192] Ibid, 202.
[193] Chomsky, Undocumented, 100-101; Blitzer, Everyone Who is Gone is Here, 290.
[194] Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire, 219.
[195] Ibid.
[196] Ibid., 219-220.
[197] Ibid., 220.
[198] Ibid.
[199] Ibid.
[200] Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire, 231.
[201] Ibid.
[202] Ibid.
[203] Ibid.
[204] Karen Beeman and Cheryl Urow, Teaching for Biliteracy: Strengthening Bridges between Languages (Philadelphia: Caslon Publishing, 2013).
[205] “Repeated Reading,” ELPS Online Helper, EnablingLearning.com, accessed July 12, 2026, https://apps.enablinglearning.com/elps-online-helper/reference/strategies/repeated_reading.
[206] Office of the State Superintendent of Education, “Washington, DC K-12 Social Studies Standards,” 22.
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