Content
To properly examine migratory patterns of Hispanics/Latinos to the United States as well as historical events and cultural aspects is a vast undertaking to say the least. Making connections as to why the Latin diaspora is situated as it stands in the United States of America today would take a lifetime to unravel accurately, respectfully and appropriately. In addition, attempting to hone information to an exact locality adds layers of research and precise information gathering. Due, in large part, to this endeavor, the proposed curriculum unit will center on a very specific set of countries and territory. Moreover, the unit is targeted for the intermediate elementary grades (third, fourth and fifth levels) and will need to provide developmentally appropriate material for student success and achievement. Therefore, the areas highlighted here consist of our North American neighboring country of Mexico, the Republic of Cuba and the United States Territory of Puerto Rico. Students will learn about general reasons for migration as well as patterns for those specific groups while also touching on musical genres and the importance of storytelling. During the implementation of this unit, children will work together and independently to discover the theme of love, longing and struggle in the readings, excerpts and music. Through a carefully maneuvered line of inquiry and use of the Socratic method of teaching, students will connect with the lessons, and material to build understanding, form their own connections, and produce thoughtful and creative material to be shared with peers, family and their community.
Mexico
With numbers constantly growing in the continental United States, representation from Latin countries, nations and territories vary largely. However, the largest Latin population in America is of Mexican descent. The Pew Research Center states that in 2021, there were 37.2 million Mexicans in this country2. Therefore, it (the Mexican diaspora) is at the core of America’s heritage. Two out of every three Latinos in this country are from Mexico.3 Many Americans do not realize the impact Mexican migrants have had on the U.S.. The federal government here, in America began their record keeping of immigrants around 1820. Since then, Mexico has been in the forefront of the number of individuals migrating here than any other country.4 About a century later, in 1920, many parcels of land, ranches and larger estates were in the hands of Anglo Americans.5 Moreover, in the Rio Grande Valley, Mexicans made up approximately 90 percent of the population, however, most of the political power and control of those lands were in the hands of the minority population of that region which was white.6 When considering the reasons that drew individuals to the United States, there are many. In fact, there tends to be a pattern within many stories of migration, that is indicative of three categories. In the examination of migration, immigration and emigration, motive for the drastic step of moving, immigrating and assimilating to a country not of one’s origin leans toward money/economics, politics and strife. These factors appear consistently, regardless of nationality. Timothy J. Henderson shares that “Illegal – and very much legal – immigration from Mexico is a creature of American Capitalism.”7 Whether for better employment opportunities, receipt of better education or much needed medical attention, the “fighting chance” that more money offered to those that migrated was worth the risk.
The part of politics plays out as a pattern in migration. One can observe this when looking at changes in immigration as well as immigration policy throughout various political goings on in the United states. From the early 1800s through to the twentieth century, there are ebbs and flows. The Great Depression, World Wars I and II, The Bracero Program, The IRCA act and more are a reflection of this. After U.S. escalation in the war by the events of Pearl Harbor, our government changed course, abruptly. Instead of deporting immigrant workers from Mexico, America pushed to “recruit” them.8
Other forms of strife like war and gang violence are also a part of the three-category pattern of migration and immigration. The Pew Research Center, in their report, Mexicans and Salvadorans Have a Positive Picture of Life in the U.S., stated that Mexicans as well as Salvadorans look at the safety situation in their homes as “dire,” and show measurable concern regarding crime. Overwhelmingly, the people of these nations would prefer that their government focus on the maintenance of “law and order.”9
Puerto Rico
In 2006, a report showed the 2000 Census Bureau recorded the population of Puerto Ricans in America had reached 3.4 million. At the time, Puerto Rico’s population was about 3.8 million. The sentiment was that to predict the number of Puerto Ricans in America would easily surpass that of the inhabitants of Puerto Rico itself was not too far off for what the 2010 census would share out.10 Fast forward to the present and you will find that the population of Puerto Rico now stands at approximately 3.2 million inhabitants while the continental United States, inclusive of Washington D.C. reports an estimated 6.1 million citizens of Puerto Rican origin.11
Looking back on patterns of migration to the United States, mostly Mexican farmworkers accounted for the Latin American immigrants here, but by 1946, over 40,000 Puerto Ricans had immigrated to the U.S., mostly in New York City. Even though there had been a minute “colonia” in the area since World War I, it had grown to about 135,000 people after World War II and by 1960, there were over a million Puerto Ricans in this country.12 Because the airline Pan American had begun regular flights to the United States out of San Juan, one sociologist called this the “greatest airborne migration in history.”13 More recent events such as Hurricane Maria, which was the worst hurricane in recorded Puerto Rican History, bringing financial and social consequence, are direct cause for migration as well.
Cuba
A nation that truly shows the three categorical breakdowns of politics, money/economics and strife (wars and other violence), is The Republic of Cuba. In the late 1900s, with the desire to flee due to the independence wars, over one hundred thousand people, which was more than 10 percent of the Cuban population, immigrated to the United States.14 However, unique opportunities were the cause of movement to America. Vincente Martinez Ybor and Ignacio Haya were able to purchase about forty acres of swamp in Tampa, Florida in the late 1800s. They ended up draining that area and set forth with the goal of the construction of a “company town.” Later, as the town grew, known as Ybor City, access to steamship liners that traveled to and from Havana, Key West and Tampa became a consistent pathway for more and more workers. In the 1900s Ybor City became known as the “cigar capital of the country,” with 129 cigar. Factories and around fifteen thousand residents.15 With examples of war and economics as drivers of Cuban immigration, politics comes into play again. Through the years, immigration policy here also ebbed and flowed. By the 1960s, many Cubans entering the United States were able to do so legally due to refugee status. The “Wet Foot, Dry Foot” policy of the time made it ok for any Cuban who reached U.S. soil, even without a visa, to stay in America in order to obtain legal status.16 Later, in 2017, President Barack Obama would end this policy. Approximately fifty to one hundred thousand people have traveled annually between Havana, Key West, and Tampa. Now, Cubans are known to be the third largest group of Hispanic origin here, in the United States. Ahead of Cuba are Mexicans, which is number one and Puerto Ricans at number two.17
Pittsburgh and Latino Communities
In the city of Pittsburgh located in Southwest Pennsylvania, an intriguing scenario has played out for decades. If you ask a native Pittsburgher where to find Latino residents and communities, the answer is most likely one of bewilderment, void of a concrete response. A look comes over their face that equates to being stunned. I have asked this question time and time again and have come up with no true answer. However, in the city located Northwest of us (Cleveland, Ohio) the answer is quite different. Answers are readily provided and it is clear that there is an established and noted presence of the Latinx community. Statistically, the city of Pittsburgh currently has a Latino population of approximately 4.5%, which is a bit higher than the 3% listed not long ago. Contrasting numbers in Cleveland show about three times that of the current population in Pittsburgh at 13.2%.18
Figure 1-Reference to percentage of Hispanic/Latino population in PA. Photo credit: Planning for Preservation in America
Figure 2-Comparison of White, Black, Hispanic and Asian Race and ethnicity by PA Municipality Types. Photo credit: Planning for Preservation in Pennsylvania
Historically, there are major factors that venture to explain possible reasons for the low account of a community that seems to thrive elsewhere. The first is the breakdown of the steel industry. This led to low numbers of immigrants relocating to any emerging Latino community. Additionally, Pittsburgh doesn’t offer larger fruit and vegetable farming, other agricultural work or ranching that might provide opportunities for migrant workers. Along with the downfall of the steel industry after the Great Depression, foreign immigration to the region slowed. Not even immigration waves during the 1960s and 1970s that populated other cities of the United States change this trend. This explains the little similarity that the population mix in Pittsburgh has with other cities in the country.19
Locals often refer to Pittsburgh as a city of neighborhoods because of the geographical dispersal of its residents. Built around the intersection of three rivers – the Allegheny, the Monongahela, and the Ohio – led the city’s residential areas to develop haphazardly, often designed to connect residents with the nearest river but not necessarily to adjacent neighborhoods.20 Neighborhoods are still separated along ethnic, racial and economic lines with little interaction between groups…Pittsburgh groups have tended to stay put, leaving little in the way of a cohesive area for Latinos to claim as their own. As a result, the Latino population are scattered in different pockets around the city, such as the neighborhoods of South Oakland and Beechview.21
Although the Latino population in the city of Pittsburgh, namely Allegheny County, is considered to be on the rise, numbers overall remain low. [Pittsburgh] is a region with a traditionally low concentration of Latinos that has experienced a population increase in the last. decade, which in some literature has been called a “new growth era.”22… The most predominant perception in the area remains that there are few, if any, Latinos in the region. This lack of awareness, coupled with how recent the arrivals of many new Latino immigrants are, results in higher levels of social and cultural isolation.23
It is widely known throughout the city and other areas that there is a low number of Latinos in comparison not only to other groups but to that of other cities near and far. Despite the little evidence that can be found about the Latino migration to the Greater Pittsburgh area before the 1990s, Latino migrants have arrived at the region for well over a century. However, with World War I slowing the amount of European workers coming to the US, there were several job openings that were seemingly unfillable. Many of these positions soon became filled by blacks in the area.24
Others were filled by Mexican immigrants, who came not only to the Southwest and West in greater numbers, but reached such places as Chicago, Detroit, and Pittsburgh. This flow continued during the 1920s, when some five hundred-thousand Mexicans were counted as immigrating to the United States, there being no quota for Western Hemisphere immigrants.25
There has been recent growth of the Latino population in Pittsburgh that spans over the last decade, however, numbers remain in the single digits when examined as a part of the whole of Allegheny County. Marcia-Vergara, 2012 states that even as the population that cab be called Latino in the Pittsburgh area has increased, it does not necessarily speak to the existence of a community as such.26
Because the city of Pittsburgh’s Latino population is still growing along with the fact that larger numbers of the existing population are centered in one area, this unit will be beneficial for the students in the Pittsburgh Public School District. The expanse of student growth and knowledge in studying Latinx history will be an invaluable experience. Paired with the inquisitive and investigative nature of the children, along with specific teaching strategies chosen to enhance the learning, students will be able to question, discuss, write and share material with their classmates, peers and family. With little to no exposure, authentic activities or interaction with the Latino community or its history at this point in their education, finding a developmentally appropriate, and fulfilling approach to the content taught is an intricate pedagogical process.
Music
The music of Latin America is a major part of the vast array of cultural aspects in Latinx communities. There is a plethora of genres, dance styles and instrumentation that bring each branch to life. Students can explore a sampling of these genres and styles in continuance of the identification of themes of love, longing and struggle. Each child should be able to articulate genres, instruments and rhythms of importance (such as the clave 2-3 and 3-2 rhythms), as well as the geography of the genre. Shown below are definitions surrounding genres of music that correlate with the focus areas of Puerto Rico, Mexico and Cuba, as well as a few others that are important to reference.
Plena
Figure 3 – Image showing percussion components of panderetas in a Plena ensemble. Photo credit: VaPix Photography
After slowly distancing from Spain, the Plena music style grew among Afro Puerto Rican urban workers on the island, mostly from coastal regions like Ponce and Mayaguez. Plena follows what is known as a “call and response” format and has sometimes been referred to as “el periodico contado” – the sung newspaper. It can be inclusive of the main singer’s feelings, perspectives, beliefs and hopes.27 Instruments include lots of percussion like the pandereta (seguidor and Segundo).
Corridos
Emerging from Mexico in the 1800s, corridos are considered narrative ballads. Like other Latin music genres, the corrido shares stories of history, love, bravery and tragedy. Recently, however, the ascent of narcocorridos, that touch on the lives of outlaws, have become popular as well.28
Mariachi
A traditional musical style and genre from Mexico, Mariachi is a rich and lively form of music and storytelling. Used in celebrations and patriotic showings it is a “symbol of Mexican national pride.” This genre can be heard at weddings and several festivals and consists of a specific set of instruments.29 You will usually find several trumpets, multiple violins and guitars, a guitarron (which is a very large guitar with deeper voicing), and a harp. An exciting feature is the “grito” which is a call, yell or laugh that is powerful and high-pitched.
Figure 4 – Image showing components of Mariachi ensemble with guitarron, guitars, trumpets and violins. Photo credit: Getty Images
Salsa
The 1960s and 70s New York scene brought about the rise of Salsa. Even though this genre is deeply rooted to Cuba and Afro-Caribbean rhythms, the style spread quickly in popularity within the Puerto Rican community.30 With large percussion ensembles and horn sections, salsa is a dynamic, uplifting sound and dance that brings out an inner drive with individuals. Instrumentation is inclusive of conga and bongos, timbales, horns (trumpets, trombone and more), and the piano (montuno rhythms/techniques). Musicians like Tito Puente, Celia Cruz and groups such as the Fania All Stars32 made the genre a noted powerhouse.
Figure 5 – Image of Tito Puente and His Orchestra performing Salsa. Photo credit: Getty Images and Jon Sievert.
Reggaeton
A notable, fast rising and popular genre, Reggaeton rose from Panama during the late 1980s, grew in popularity in Puerto Rico in the 90s,33 and is a current phenomenon. With so many exciting aspects of the genre, like bold, urban-themed lyrics, the Dembow rhythmic beats are the driving factor of this specific sound. Instrumentation can include electronics layered on top of the rhythm and vocals. Individuals like Daddy Yankee, Bad Bunny and Ivy Queen continue to make this genre extremely popular.34
Samba
Related to the Afro-Brazilian community with notoriety specifically tied to Brazil and Carnival, Samba continues with the tenet of syncopated rhythms of African descent. Known for that syncopated rhythm as well as lively instrumentation, “Samba is as much about dance as it is about music.”35
Bossa Nova
Even though this genre of Latin music is outside of the focal points of this unit, it is important to include as a reference for different rhythms and origins/connections to the aforementioned genres. Bossa Nova, music with history in Brazil, is inclusive of syncopated rhythms and jazz stylings.36 With instruments similar to those used in Samba and Salsa, such as the guiro and light percussion, in addition to some that are most identifiable to the genre, like the Cuica, it is extremely popular. Notable musicians of the genre include Joao Gilberto, Antonio Carlos Jobim and Sergio Mendes, who debuted at Carnegie Music Hall in November of 1962. This was widely regarded as the “first Bossa Nova concert in the United States.”37
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