Notes
[1] James Baldwin, Notes of a Native Son (Boston: Beacon Press, 1955).
[2] Randy Gonzales, “Filipinos,” 64 Parishes, Louisiana Endowment for the Humanities, November 17, 2024, https://64parishes.org/entry/filipinos
[3] Rajender Kaur, “The Curious Case of Sick Keesar: Tracing the Roots of South Asian Presence in the Early Republic,” Journal of Transnational American Studies 8, no. 1 (2017): 4–5, 15.
[4] Naturalization Act of 1790, ch. 3, § 1, 1 Stat. 103 (1790).
[5] Erika Lee and Judy Yung, Angel Island: Immigrant Gateway to America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 70–71.
[6] Lee and Yung, Angel Island, 70–71.
[7] Erika Lee and Judy Yung, Angel Island: Immigrant Gateway to America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010); Anna Pegler-Gordon, Closing the Golden Door: Asian Migration and the Hidden History of Exclusion at Ellis Island (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2021).
[8] Kelly Lytle Hernández, City of Inmates: Conquest, Rebellion, and the Rise of Human Caging in Los Angeles, 1771–1965 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017), 66–67.
[9] Erika Lee and Judy Yung, Angel Island: Immigrant Gateway to America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010).
[10] Nayan Shah, Contagious Divides: Epidemics and Race in San Francisco’s Chinatown (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001); Lee and Yung, Angel Island.
[11] Erika Lee and Judy Yung, Angel Island: Immigrant Gateway to America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010).
[12] Lee and Yung, Angel Island; Miliann Kang, “Reproducing Asian American Studies: Rethinking Asian Exclusion as Reproductive Exclusion,” Amerasia Journal 46 (2020): 139–41.
[13] Lee and Yung, Angel Island.
[14] Hernández, City of Inmates, 66–67; Lee and Yung, Angel Island.
[15] Lee and Yung, Angel Island.
[16] In re Ah Yup, 1 F. Cas. 223, 223–24 (C.C.D. Cal. 1878).
[17] Julian Lim, “Plenary Powers: Chinese Immigration, Sovereignty Challenges, and the Making of Federal Immigration Power in the U.S. West,” Journal of American History 112, no. 3 (December 2025): 482, 507.
[18] Hernández, City of Inmates, 77, 88–90.
[19] Hernández, City of Inmates, 76–77, 87–88.
[20] Amy Qin, “This Man Won Birthright Citizenship for All,” New York Times, February 10, 2025, https://www.nytimes.com/2025/02/10/us/birthright-citizenship-wong-kim-ark-supreme-court.html
[21] Amanda Frost, “‘By Accident of Birth’: The Battle over Birthright Citizenship After United States v. Wong Kim Ark,” Yale Journal of Law & the Humanities 32, no. 1 (2021): 62–75.
[22] Shah, Contagious Divides.
[23] Kitty Calavita, “The Paradoxes of Race, Class, Identity, and ‘Passing’: Enforcing the Chinese Exclusion Acts, 1882–1910,” Law & Social Inquiry 25, no. 1 (2000): 29.
[24] Amy Lauren Fairchild, “Science at the Borders: Immigrant Medical Inspection and Defense of the Nation, 1891 to 1930” (PhD diss., Columbia University, 1997).
[25] A. Vincent Ciardiello, “Is Angel Island the Ellis Island of the West? Teaching Multiple Perspective-Taking in American Immigration History,” The Social Studies 103 (2012): 171–76.
[26] Lee and Yung, Angel Island.
[27] Lee and Yung, Angel Island.
[28] Lee and Yung, Angel Island, 69.
[29] Amy Lauren Fairchild, “Science at the Borders: Immigrant Medical Inspection and Defense of the Nation, 1891 to 1930” (PhD diss., Columbia University, 1997).
[30] Shah, Contagious Divides, 120–57.
[31] Fairchild, “Science at the Borders,” 134, 223–24.
[32] Lee and Yung, Angel Island.
[33] Lee and Yung, Angel Island, 151–55.
[34] Fairchild, “Science at the Borders,” 207–8.
[35] Him Mark Lai, Genny Lim, and Judy Yung, eds., Island: Poetry and History of Chinese Immigrants on Angel Island, 1910–1940, 2nd ed. (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2014), 100.
[36] Lee and Yung, Angel Island, 101–2.
[37] Douglas C. Baynton, Defectives in the Land: Disability and Immigration in the Age of Eugenics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016), 44–45; Fairchild, “Science at the Borders.”
[38] Baynton, Defectives in the Land, 4–5.
[39] Baynton, Defectives in the Land, 59.
[40] Henry H. Goddard, “The Binet Tests in Relation to Immigration,” Journal of Psycho-Asthenics 18 (1913): 105–7.
[41] Fairchild, “Science at the Borders,” 149–51.
[42] Fairchild, “Science at the Borders,” 325–26.
[43] Yukako Otori, “America’s Foreign-Born ‘Citizens’: Disability and the Politics of Child Exclusion,” Journal of American Ethnic History 44, no. 4 (Summer 2025): 26.
[44] Otori, “America’s Foreign-Born ‘Citizens,’” 27–28.
[45] Otori, “America’s Foreign-Born ‘Citizens,’” 29–31.
[46] Otori, “America’s Foreign-Born ‘Citizens,’” 31–34.
[47] Lai, Lim, and Yung, Island, 84, 100, 126.
[48] Jonathan Hsy, “Disability, Space, and Racial Injustice: Life Writing at Angel Island Immigration Station, 1910–1940,” Journal of American Ethnic History 43, no. 3 (Spring 2024): 37.
[49] Mary Paik Lee, Quiet Odyssey: A Pioneer Korean Woman in America, ed. Sucheng Chan, foreword by David K. Yoo (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2019), 44.
[50] Chiou-ling Yeh, Making an American Festival: Chinese New Year in San Francisco’s Chinatown (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008), 37–38.
[51] Lee and Yung, Angel Island.
[52] Vivek Bald, Bengali Harlem and the Lost Histories of South Asian America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013), 83–92.
[53]Bald, Bengali Harlem; Erika Lee, The Making of Asian America: A History (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2015).
[54] Ngai, Impossible Subjects; Lee, Making of Asian America.
[55] Karen Umemoto, “‘On Strike!’ San Francisco State College Strike, 1968–69: The Role of Asian American Students,” Amerasia Journal 15, no. 1 (1989): 3–41.
[56] Umemoto, “‘On Strike!’”
[57] Timothy Shanahan and Cynthia Shanahan, “Teaching Disciplinary Literacy to Adolescents: Rethinking Content-Area Literacy,” Harvard Educational Review 78, no. 1 (2008): 40–59, especially 50–51.
[58] Maryam Salehomoum, Katie Revelle, Nell Duke, and P. David Pearson, “Gradual Release of Responsibility Instructional Model,” Routledge Resources Online (2022), 1–5, https://doi.org/10.4324/9781138609877-REE226-1.
[59] What Works Clearinghouse, Teaching Academic Content and Literacy to English Learners in Elementary and Middle School: Instructional Tips Based on the Educator’s Practice Guide (Washington, DC: Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, 2014), 2.
[60] CAST, Universal Design for Learning Guidelines, Version 3.0 (2024).
[61] Chinese Exclusion Act, ch. 126, 22 Stat. 58 (1882).
[62] “The Chinese Exclusion Act,” Bisbee Daily Review (Bisbee, AZ), June 30, 1905, 4, col. 1, Library of Congress, Chronicling America, https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn84024827/1905-06-30/ed-1/?sp=4&q=ACT+act+Chinese+CHINESE+exclusion+EXCLUSION.
[63] Donald J. Trump, “Restricting and Limiting the Entry of Foreign Nationals to Protect the Security of the United States,” presidential proclamation, December 16, 2025, White House, https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/12/restricting-and-limiting-the-entry-of-foreign-nationals-to-protect-the-security-of-the-united-states/
[64] Angel Island Immigration Station Foundation, “Under the Microscope: Medicine and Immigration—The Role of the Hospital on Angel Island,” 2022, https://www.aiisf.org/aiimicroscope
[65] Lai, Lim, and Yung, Island, 100.
[66] Amanda Seitz, “Immigrants With Health Conditions May Be Denied Visas Under New Trump Administration Guidance,” KFF Health News, November 6, 2025, https://kffhealthnews.org/news/article/visa-public-charge-health-conditions-trump-state-department/
[67] Alison Stine, “The Danger ICE Poses to the Disabled Community,” Nonprofit Quarterly, 2026, https://nonprofitquarterly.org/the-danger-ice-poses-to-the-disabled-community/
[68] Lee, Quiet Odyssey, 44, 56.
[69] Kao Kalia Yang, The Latehomecomer: A Hmong Family Memoir (Minneapolis: Coffee House Press, 2008), 67, 145.
[70] Héctor Alejandro Arzate, “‘We Are There To Fill In The Gap’: Resource Center For Afghan Refugees Opening In Alexandria,” DCist/WAMU, May 19, 2022, https://dcist.com/story/22/05/19/resource-center-afghan-refugees-alexandria/
[71] Women for Afghan Women, “United States,” accessed August 10, 2026, https://womenforafghanwomen.org/united-states/
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