What is a Myth?
Simply stated, myths are good stories. They are stories that allowed primitive man to make sense of a world he could not control, but tried to order. They are stories of humans that become bigger than life and often larger than the history the story was originally intended to tell. They are stories of origin and creation. We think of myths as being centuries old, but myths can be created at any time. Think of the movie "Star Wars," novels and movies of "The Lord of the Rings," the scientific theory of the "Big Bang," and the urban legend of crocodiles living in the sewer system.
The word "myth" is from the Greek word muthos or mythos which means word or speech. The Greeks used the term for their stories about their gods and any other supernatural tales (Clifton 130). The definition I feel is best for this unit comes from the website Wikipedia.com and specifies: myth "identifies a sacred story or narrative containing supernatural, divine or heroic beings, arranged in a coherent system, passed down orally, and linked to the spiritual or religious life and community. Myths have existed in all cultures since before recorded history. Myths are often set in mythical time, a time before time or history begins, and are intended to explain the universal and local beginnings. . .and anything else for which no simple explanation presents itself." This is the definition the unit will use.
Writing Structure of Myths
This unit will rely on Christopher Vogler's The Writer's Journey: Mythic Structure for Writers for all writing assignments as well as serving as the main fulcrum in how the class will interpret the different myths. Looking at the myths in this manner will enable students to become proficient at deciphering the different archetypes and their variations as well as provide a firm base when they create their own myths. In further drawing out the archetypes as presented by Vogler, I have used movies that the majority of students would be familiar with. Using movies in this unit will also help students visualize the roles and provide them with additional creative ideas.
Vogler's book essentially creates a Hollywood scriptwriter's template for writing myths. His template is based on Joseph Campbell's seminal work on mythology titled, Hero of a Thousand Faces. Campbell examined the myths of the West and East using Swiss psychologist Carl G. Jung's archetypes or "ancient patterns of personality that are the shared heritage of the human race" (Vogler 29). Overwhelmingly, Campbell found the world's mythologies have set patterns and characters. Soon after the publication of Hero of a Thousands Faces, Vogler created a seven page memo for fellow scriptwriters at the Disney studios titled, "A Practical Guide to The Hero with a Thousand Faces" in which Vogler adapted Campbell's academic findings for the layman. (The original memo is available on-line at http://www.bsu.edu/classes/magrath/205resources/hero.html or by searching the title in quotes.) Vogler's book, The Writer's Journey, written over ten years after his famous memo, goes into much greater detail and is not only an effective writing aid for the classroom, but also a fantastic vehicle for discussing the myths themselves.
Many writers including George Lucas and filmmaker Steven Spielberg have credited Campbell's work as their guiding force in deciding what will work and what will not in a script. Lucas even funded a now famous 1988 PBS interview series hosted by Bill Moyers in which Campbell espouses his ideology on myths. The series is available through most public library systems and excerpts would be appropriate for classroom use.
Vogler's work allows Campbell's theories to be easily incorporated into a classroom writing assignment for students creating their own myths. An added dividend is the classroom exercise in which students trying to see how well popular versus dud movies follow the structure. This exercise is listed in the classroom activity section of this unit.
Characters First
According to Vogler, there is a set of common characters in myths and fairy tales, but one character can incorporate another character's traits. This means a hero can also be a trickster or a mentor can be a mentor and a shadow figure. Remember characters and their traits are drawn from Jung's archetypes and are often referred to as such. The common characters are: hero, mentor (often a wise old person), threshold guardian, herald, shapeshifter, shadow, and trickster (Vogler 32). A breakdown of their traits useful for students in their writing are as follows:
Hero—Greek origin meaning to watch over or protect. A hero, man or woman, should be someone the audience will identify with and is often the character whose eyes the audience sees with. The hero can incorporate traits of the writer/creator. The hero is searching for a complete identity or wholeness. A good hero is unique and not stereotypical—strive for realism and not a cardboard figure. The hero should show growth through their adventure and must be the one who ultimately resolves the major conflict. Heroes can have help, but it must be the hero who finally slays the dragon or discovers the remedy. A hero can be willing or unwilling to take up the cause, but there must be a motivation. The motivation must be strong or even life altering to be believable (Vogler 35-41).
Anti-hero—there are two types and each will appeal to teenagers. The first is the cynical hero: think Han Solo from Star Wars. The second type Vogler terms as tragic and are figures that are not likeable, but the audience is drawn to them. They also never overcome their flaw and are finally destroyed by that flaw or demon that haunts them. I know many of my students (born years after the movie was made) wear t-shirts depicting Al Pacino from the 1983 movie Scarface. His character, Tony Montana, becomes king of drug trafficking in Miami, and he has few if any redeeming qualities. Yet, the movie has become a classic in their, and obviously a lot of t-shirt manufacturers', eyes. In an urban area, discussing the traits of an anti-hero would be an especially good exercise. Remind them, though, that to be a true anti-hero they need to have to do something good (Vogler 41-2).
Mentor—the term originated from the character named as such in Homer's The Odyssey. Like this character, a mentor is usually cast as an elderly person, who can motivate, guide, inspire, train, advise, and give special gifts to the hero. Note: as far as gift giving goes, the hero must earn it. Gifts are not freely dispensed. The image of the mentor is often thought of as parent-like and they often take on that role when no parent is available to the hero. Good examples are the fairy godmother in Cinderella or Obi Wan Kenobi in Star Wars (Vogler 47-56).
Threshold Guardian—think of minions such as Ginarrbrik, the White Witch's dwarf henchman in The Chronicles of Narnia, the bounty hunter, Boba Fett, in Star Wars, and Fluffy, the three-headed dog in Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone. They are not the main villain or antagonist. They can be overcome by strength, smarts, or simply bypassed. Occasionally, they can become allies of the hero. Vogler comments that threshold guardians are often inner demons, "neuroses, emotional scars, vices, dependencies, and self-limitations that hold back our growth and progress in life" (58). They will test the hero and give the true hero new knowledge and strength (Vogler 57-60).
Herald—works like a touchstone in that the herald announces major changes and issues challenges to the hero. Vogler places a herald as the person or thing, good or bad, that upsets the status quo of the hero in some way. The hero has "gotten by" (61) in life and now something occurs that means life can never be the same for them. The hero must make a decision to act on whatever has disrupted life. The herald's role is often combined with the mentor's. The herald's part should be written into Act One of any myth affording cohesion to the story (Vogler 61-64). Good examples of herald roles are the owl delivering Harry Potter's Hogwarts' invitation in Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone and the arrival of Buzz Lightyear in Toy Story.
Shapeshifter—often a member of the opposite sex than the hero, the shapeshifter is often thought of as very changeable or two-faced. Thus, they are very flexible characters and adapt with the story. They serve to bring doubt and suspense to the story (Vogler 67). The hero often has to take on the role of a shapeshifter in order to survive. This is true of Captain Jack Sparrow in Pirates of the Caribbean 2: Dead Man's Chest. Sparrow appears to be leading the cannibals, when in fact they are allowing him to be their chief as long as he is their main course when they so desire. The shapeshifter can be villainous, good, or a homes or femme fatale. The only signal they may give that they have taken on this role is a change of clothes or hairstyle (Vogler 65-70). Other examples of a shapeshifter are Mr. Potato Head in Toy Story and Peter in The Chronicles of Narnia.
Shadow—true to its image, the shadow represents the dark side or villain. They make the conflict and challenge the hero. More than any other character, the shadow is a manifestation of what we cannot express, the darkness of our soul, and the polar opposite of the hero. A good shadow displays human qualities that allow the audience to find some redeeming qualities in them. Generally, though, it is best not to allow the shadow to be too human or good so that the audience is not won over to their side. The shadow can be one person like the White Witch in The Chronicles of Narnia, an embodiment or force such as the dark side in Star Wars, or part shapeshifter like the beast in Beauty and the Beast (Vogler 71-75).
Trickster—essentially the clown or comic sidekick. Tricksters can keep heroes from getting a big head, keep everyone—including the audience—grounded, point out wrongs and follies, lift the tension, make us laugh, and ensure that things do not stay the same. They are also catalyst characters, who will have an effect on others, but do not change themselves. Examples of tricksters are Sebastian in the Disney movie The Little Mermaid, C-3PO in Star Wars, and Ron Weasley in the Harry Potter series.
Worlds a Hero Will Inhabit
There are two worlds a writer must create in order to successfully write a myth. The first world is the hero's real world or "ordinary world" as Vogler terms it (15). This is the world the hero regularly inhabits and where he often receives the call to action.
The second world is the "special world" (Vogler 18). This is the mythical world or the place where anything can happen. It is important that the audience is given a clear-cut distinction between the two worlds.
Good examples of showing the difference between an ordinary world and a special world can be seen in The Chronicles of Narnia and The Wizard of Oz. When Lucy steps through the wardrobe in Narnia all it takes is stepping from inside, the womb-type experience of the wardrobe to a snowy landscape. The Wizard of Oz is much more dramatic as the ordinary world of Kansas is shot in black and white and the special world of Oz is shot in color.
Myth Mapping
The following is a modification of Vogler's myth template (26), which normally has twelve stages, but I have condensed it to five stages to facilitate student success.
First stage, the hero and his ordinary world are introduced. This can be completed in a paragraph or two depending upon the student's writing ability and enthusiasm. Remember in The Wizard of Oz, all the audience needs to know is that Dorothy is living on a farm in Kansas with her aunt, uncle, and dog, Toto.
Second stage is the call to action and the hero's reluctance to take action. Whatever calls the hero to action must be powerful—students can think of the end of the world, 911, or saving a forest from being destroyed. The hero's reluctance is the key. The hero must see the need, but act like most people in either being afraid to stand-up or does not want to be bothered. This is a good time for students to introduce the shadow or villain as well.
A good example of a reluctant hero is Spiderman. In the movie, Spiderman, Peter Parker does not stop the robber even though he has the power to do so. It is not until after his Uncle Ben is shot by the robber that Peter decides to become a crime fighter. Guilt becomes his call.
Beginning in this stage, the mentor should be introduced as well as the special world. Remember the mentor can be combined with another archetype such as trickster or shapeshifter to add interest or create later developments.
The call to action should appeal to students' imaginations. Length can be slotted from a half-page to two or three pages depending upon if dialogue is used and how complicated students decide to make the action. It is important, though, to not let them burn-out too quickly. Meaning they pour too much energy into the early stages of the story and then want to just get it over as the end approaches.
Third stage is the testing of the hero. This could entail one test or several tests. Tests could be fighting different monsters such as Hercules does in the Disney animated movie, a combination of mental and physical such as exhibited in Cinderella's ordeal with her wicked step-mother and step-sisters and Luke Skywalker goes through in Star Wars. The hero can also be rewarded by receiving special gifts that will enable them to complete his final mission and/or make new friends or allies. More importantly, the hero gathers strength and courage. This stage can be targeted at a half-page to several. Again it depends upon the student's interest and ability.
Note: the third stage can be skipped and the hero can go directly to the major ordeal. Remember in writing there are formulas, but writers should always be encouraged to experiment.
Fourth stage, the hero and the shadow forces meet. This can be a dramatic full-battle conflict such as in The Chronicles of Narnia or a one-to-one battle involving might and mind like Luke Skywalker and the Emperor battling in The Return of the Jedi. The hero should face death and either escape it (by his own skill is important or they are not a hero) or become a tragic hero and save the whatever, but succumb.
The writing in this stage can take as little as half-page, but should not go beyond two pages. There is nothing worse than a drawn out climax.
Final stage—wrap-up. The hero shows they have been transformed by their experience, receives the reward, and must decide to either return to the ordinary world or stay in the special world. The wrap-up should be quick—almost abrupt. Allow the sweet flavor of victory to be tasted. All endings should not be concluded too neatly or it will turn to a syrupy-sweet ending.
Brief Look at Maya Civilization
The first evidence of the Maya people in the Mesoamerica region begins to appear along the Pacific Coast beginning in 1800 B.C. By 1000 B.C. villages with ceremonial architectural and burial mounds can be found scattered throughout what would become the heartland of the Maya civilization. By 300 A.D. the Maya had begun building the huge urban centers or polities of Copan, Tikal, Palenque, Kalakmul, Dos Pilas, Uaxactun, Altu Ha, Chichen Itza, Coba, Bonampak, and many others, large and small. The polities were each their own small kingdom controlled by a hereditary ruler. The polities often warred against each other and dynastic families intermarried, but seldom was any polity dissolved. The polities were very court-oriented city-states. On the one hand they made war against one another, and on the other, they were arranging marriages between each other. Obviously some of the courts and their surrounding neighborhoods were huge as the Maya are attributed with having the most densely populated civilizations of the time (Wikipedia).
From 300-900 A.D. the Maya reached their golden age. While the polities remained agriculturally based and archeologists have found little evidence of one polity solely specializing in a trade, the Maya contributions to the arts, architecture, mathematics, and astronomy are significant (see individual sections below). The polities were very social among themselves and with others especially in trading goods and exchanging cultural information
Around 900 A.D. the Maya civilization began to collapse. Archaeologists have proposed theories such as the worst drought in 7,000 years, over use of the land as a part of environmental degradation, disease, political uprisings, or a combination of these as the cause. What is sure is that the Maya civilization was in full-stride and then suddenly on its knees. It is important to realize, though, that while the majority of their polities were abandoned, the people still survived.
The Spanish conquistadors arrived in the area around 1519, but the Maya people, while not as organized in the city-states as they had been, still maintained many of the surrounding villages and cities. It would not be until the mid-sixteenth century that the Spanish would finally be able to say they conquered the Maya, because the polities of the past had left the Maya region with decentralized governments.
The Maya never had a single appointed language, but the most important languages spoken today include Quiche in Guatemala and Yucatec in Yucatan. Today, the majority of the Maya have adopted Roman Catholicism, yet still maintain many of their traditional beliefs and customs. They have survived the mysterious collapse of their empire, diseases brought by the Europeans, and conquest by the Spanish along with the destruction of much of their literature and culture.
Maya Achievements in Architecture
Maya architecture integrated the natural features of the land thus; they did not design their cities in a rigid grid fashion, but the evidence is significant that they carefully planned their urban environments. The city center of a polity consisted of large plazas with the most important government and religious buildings and the residences of the elite grouped there. The next ring of buildings and plazas would be the lesser noble palaces and shrines. Interestingly, this ring had more privacy then the inner ruling center. The next ring housed even lesser nobles along with skilled craftspeople or possibly the beginning of the commoners, whose homes were often not permanent.
The Maya choice in building materials consisted only of stone tools, limestone, and manpower. They did not have the wheel or pulley. Yet, they were able to construct beautifully detailed and enormous palaces and pyramids. They used limestone that had been crushed and burnt to make cement mortar and limestone as their chief building medium. They had learned that limestone can easily be shaped at the quarry site because it remains porous and thus more pliable while still in the ground. Some of the common structures they had in their polities were:
- ceremonial platforms that were close to four meters in height and carved with figures.
- pyramids and temples which could be over 200 feet tall. At the top there were often carvings of the rulers creating an omniscient atmosphere.
- palaces, often referred to as acropolises if they covered more than one story and had many chambers, for the ruling elite. These were highly decorative elements, but function seemed always paramount.
- observatories—The Maya were particularly interested in astronomy and had already plotted the movements of the Moon and Venus. Many observatories had unique features such as celestial alignment of doors and specific carvings.
- ball courts—evidence shows that the Maya loved the game of ulama, too. No matter what size polity, there is always one, if not several, ball courts. The courts are typically I-shaped with giant carved sideways hoops running along the length (Wikipedia).
Mathematics
The ancient Maya can be called "math geeks." Long before Europeans borrowed the idea from India, the Maya had developed the concept of the digit zero. They were able to do complex sums of over hundreds of millions and were extremely accurate in celestial observations using only their eyes.
Finally, they developed a 365-day calendar year, which falls out of alignment with the seasons by one day every four years and a ritual calendar with a cycle of 260 days. The Maya calendars continuously counted days, like the Julian Day Number used by scientists. This allowed them to keep track of their calendars across vast amounts of time and with exceptional accuracy. Their development of the measuring system to do such complex mathematics was far ahead of anything Europe or most other countries for hundreds of years.
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