Background Content
Tropical Forest – First Year Topic of Study
A large part of Africa around the Congo River is rainforest. Many tropical forests in Africa have wet and dry seasons. Plant life is very dense. Vines weave through the forest. Very little light gets through to the forest floor. It is home to many different types of plants and animals. By learning about the tropical forest biome, students will be empowered to be guardians or caretakers of the forest. They will be taught conservation, and principles of respect and collaboration. The students will be taught through both a scientific model and through traditional community knowledge.
Plants of the African Tropical Forest
Numerous varieties and species of plants flourish in the tropical forest. There have been 11,000 forest plants identified. 1,100 of these are unique to the forest and found nowhere else in the world. It is estimated that 69 of these plant species are threatened.8 The trees in the tropical forest can reach heights of 130 to 160 feet.9 The Congo Rainforest is known for its small number of tree species that comprise the rainforest. The African oak, red cedar, and mahogany, which are all broadleaf trees, form the dense upper canopy. The upper canopy is usually located over 40 meters above the ground.10 The lower canopy is comprised of trees of different types and sizes. In these lower layers, trees compete for light. This means tall vegetation growth is vital for survival because sunlight usually does not penetrate through to the forest floor.
Because of the limited sunlight, the survival rate of plants at the very bottom layer of the rainforest is low. Two different climbing plants thrive at the bottom layers. They are lianas and ficus (strangler figs). In order to survive, these two plants send shoots through the trees to acquire more sunlight.11 This bottom layer of the rainforest is also comprised of small ferns and dead leaves that are rapidly decomposing. Moss also grows on downed trees. The mineral nutrients that the dead decomposing materials provide are vital to the plants in the rainforest. The dead trees provide sites for breeding as well as shelter for bats, birds, and other small animals.
Plants that have medicinal properties are habitually harvested from the rainforest. They are used by both the indigenous people and the modern world. Biochemicals are often extricated from the plants of the rainforest. They are then used in the production of certain drugs. The International Cancer Institute has identified 1,400 tropical forest plants with anti-cancer potential. 12
Animals of the African Tropical Forest
The animals in this biome also have adaptations characteristic of living in their homes. One example is the leaf tailed gecko, which has a tail that looks like a decaying leaf to camouflage it against the forest background. The blotchy tail appears to have sections missing and looks like a leaf that has been broken over time. Also, this lizard is able to shed its tail to further confuse and avoid possible predators.13
Another example is the potto. This is a nocturnal mammal that has thumbs that can grasp branches as well as eyes to help it see at night. These animals have thin, slender bodies. Their long limbs, which are about the size of their entire body, are the key factor in them being able to cling to branches and trees. The potto has a large bridge between its eyes that is used to head butt predators in battle.14
Another animal that lives in the tropical forest is the tree pangolin. The tree pangolin can curl into an armored ball when it feels threatened. Its armor is made up of overlapping scales that are made of keratin, like our fingernails. Tree pangolins have a tail that helps them hang on to tree branches.15 The prehensile long tail lets the animal reach ant and termites. Its long, sticky tongue can also lick up the insects it eats.16
The goliath frog that lives in the tropical forest is as big as a house cat. One of the reasons that this frog is endangered is because the Efe indigenous people hunt it by trapping it in a basket. Once prepared, the animal can feed several families. Researchers have studied this frog in the wild and have noticed that they shift very large stones in nearby streams to build nests for their young. These rocks can weigh up to 5 ½ pounds. This is one possible explanation as to why the frog is so large.17
Indigenous People of the African Tropical Forest -The Efe
There is a small village outside of Isiro on the edge of the jungle. This is the only place where the Efe people live. It was once common that the Efe were referred to as pygmies because of their short stature, but the term was seen by some as offensive and therefore they are generally referred to as Efe in the current day. The Efe people have long been studied by anthropologists. They used to live by hunting and gathering in the rainforest. They move their camp often to avoid taking too much from any one area. The Efe live in dome shaped huts covered with large leaves. Each hut has an open doorway facing the center of the camp.18 The children do not go to school; they work with their parents and learn how to live on the land. They often camp near a tribe of farmers. In conjunction with the farmers, they try to improve how much food they can harvest from their land. The Efe work in the fields in exchange for the rice, sweet potatoes, plantains, and peanuts they help grow. They also trade honey, meat, mushrooms, and medicines that they hunt and gather from the rainforest.19 The Efe move their camp to find food. Living day to day, and sometimes going hungry, is not an easy life.
The Efe people feel that their environment is bountiful and giving. They live in bands of 15 to 60 people.20 They hunt for their meat, gather plant foods, and collect honey. They are a nomadic tribe. This means that all of their possessions have to be brought when they move to a new hunting camp. This is one of the main reasons why the Efe have very few belongings. The Efe people know the rainforest very well. They pay attention to the cycles of plants including when they are flowering and bearing fruit. They can also locate a bees’ nest from the flight of a bee, and the location and direction of animal tracks. They can recognize distinct properties of thousands of plants and utilize them for many reasons. This includes knowing which plants are safe to eat, and which ones can be used as medicines to help with pain relief, heal wounds, and cure fever.21
Recently, however, the Efe people had to adapt their traditional way of life. Commercial forestry is now making its way deeper into the rain forest. The Efe people have been hired to assist with logging.22 This means that the food supply has been significantly reduced. Along with this, the Efe people’s homes and their natural habitat are being destroyed. New roads have also been built. Animals that the Efe would have previously been able to hunt have now disappeared or have been scared away by the noise. 23
Anthropologists have noted that rituals which support their relationship with the forest and with the spirits of the forest are important to the Efe people. Music and songs are a crucial part of these rituals. This music may last throughout the night.24 The Efe feel that in order for the hunt to be successful, it is necessary to establish a peaceful state of mind and unity among the camp. This is the primary aim of the rituals. Another aim is to re-establish a good relationship with the forest.25
Figure 2. Tropical Forest in Gabon, Africa26
Grasslands – Second Year Topic of Study
A large portion of Africa is tropical grassland called the savanna. The African savanna is the most extensive ecosystem in the world. It is also the richest grassland biome in the world.27 The savanna is home to many indigenous plants and animals. It is also home to the world's most prevalent concentration of large mammals including buffaloes, elephants, leopards, giraffes, rhinoceroses, lions, zebras, cheetahs, and hippopotami.28 Vegetation including tall grasses and thorny bushes grow here. Trees may stand alone. Herds of animals graze here. It does not rain very often. Animals migrate seasonally in search of water. This grassy biome is a species-rich ecosystem. They are being destroyed at a very fast pace. Second year students will be encouraged to acknowledge the fact that these areas have rich biodiversity.
Plants of the African Grasslands
There are many notable trees that live in the grasslands. One is the rare Acacia tree. It thrives in the savanna and is one of its most iconic sights. This tree is one of the giraffe’s favorite foods. A herd of giraffe will often gather around one tree and eat the leaves. Because of this in order to curb feeding, the tree has evolved to grow sharp thorns as long as four inches.29 To counter the thorns, giraffes have developed a flexible tongue that allows them to navigate around the thorns. Some of these trees have developed the ability to release tannins in response to injury. The chemicals have a bitter taste to giraffes and are mildly toxic. These tannins even send out chemical signals to nearby trees. These signals warn trees in close proximity to do the same.30
Another tree found on the grasslands is the baobab tree. These trees can live to be thousands of years old and grow to be exceptionally large. One hollowed-out baobab is so large that up to 40 people can take shelter inside at once.31 This tree is very hardy. Their trunks are able to store water for months. The baobab trees are also extremely fire resistant. If the tree is burnt, it will grow all-new bark and continue to grow and flourish like nothing happened.32 This tree is also known as the tree of life. This is because it can provide all of the basic needs such as shelter, clothing, food, and water for both animals and humans.
Animals of the African Grasslands
The animals that live in the savanna represent extreme biodiversity. Goats, zebras, hyenas, giraffes, lions, and elephants are some of the large mammals that live in the grasslands. Because the African savanna is an open area containing very few trees, many of the animals that live in the savanna have to adapt to their unique biome. Large cats and hoofed mammals have evolved to run quickly across the plains. Scavengers also flourish because of the nature of the area. They are able to see their prey or carcasses that are on the grasslands. Animals have adapted to the unique features that the grasslands possess. These adaptations include having to deal with the warm climate.33
One such animal is the pancake tortoise. The pancake tortoise has a flat shell that allows it to wedge itself in the cracks of the rocks for protection from predators.34 The South African rain frog hides in the sand during the day and comes out in the cooler evening to feed. It has webbed feet to walk on sand and it can lay its eggs without water. The male weaver bird weaves a nest that hangs from a tree branch. This nest is closed except for a small hole in the bottom. The male weaver bird attracts a female to its nest. The oxpecker bird and the eland antelope also live in the grassland savanna. The oxpecker lands on the back of the eland and sucks off the ticks that latch on to its back. In this way, the oxpecker is fed and the eland is kept clean. The way they interact is called symbiosis.35
Indigenous People of the African Grasslands – The Maasai
The Maasai people have been known for centuries as fearsome hunters and warriors. The Maasai are semi-nomadic, meaning they move seasonally from place to place. They live in southern Kenya and northern Tanzania.36 The tribes revolve around their cattle. Cows are seen as part of the family and have names. The bond that they have with their cattle has led them to their nomadic way of life. They follow the rainfall and search for food and water for their cattle. The Maasai depend on their cattle for many things. They drink the milk and eat the meat. The cow dung is also used for building their houses. Traditionally, the cattle were also slaughtered for ceremonies.37 The Maasai people who live in the Serengeti also raise goats for meat. The Serengeti is an ecosystem in central Africa. It is a region known for its biodiversity, especially the so-called “big five.” This includes lions, leopards, elephants, rhinos, and buffaloes. Anthropologists have also found some of the oldest fossils of early humans in this area.
In their villages, the Maasai sleep in their Inkajijik (Maasai word for a house) in a circle. Their houses are oblong and made of sticks, mud, grass, cow dung and cow urine.38 The people have to go to the waterhole for water. In the wet season, you do not have to go far. In the dry season, they may have to walk for miles to get water. During the dry season, the young men must take the cattle to other places for grass and water. They may set up camp if they find a good spot. They build a corral of thorn bushes to protect the cattle at night from lions and other predators. They do not go back to the village until the dry season is over. These places become harder and harder to find because so much land has been put aside for wildlife by the government.39 The land that a Maasai tribe has to roam is smaller because of the parks and farms. The size of their herds has become smaller and they are not as strong and independent as they once were. In the savanna, there has been a significant increase in urbanization. In addition, there are new National Game Reserves that were once land that the Maasai used for grazing.40
Young Maasai children will join the warriors when they are older. They will live in a camp together away from the village and take the herds to a far pasture during the dry season. The men grow their hair in braids and wear beadwork made by the women. A very important part of Maasai culture is beauty.41 Both men and women use beads as a form of adornment. They are worn almost all of the time, and most people have different pieces of jewelry for different occasions. Some are worn nearly every day, while others are for ceremonies and rites of passage. Some are crafted and given to visitors as a sign of gratitude and respect. 42
Figure 3. African grassland savanna43
Desert – Third Year Topic of Study
The Kalahari Desert is hot and dry all the time. Sometimes it rarely rains, and other times it does not rain at all. According to an article in Science Daily, the sand in the desert is home to a bacterium that helps gather and store carbon dioxide from the air. Because of this, the Kalahari Desert is an important carbon sink of the Earth. The desert sands store more carbon than they release. 44 By studying the desert biome, students will learn more about how to be a caretaker of the earth.
Plants of the African Desert
In order for plants to survive in the desert, they have to adapt to an extremely dry environment. Because of the arid environment, plants need to be good at both storing and finding water. Some desert plants have seeds that can stay dormant in the sand for a long time. They will stay underground until there is enough rain for them to grow.45 Mostly annual grasses inhabit the desert biome. In the rare occasion that there are abundant rains, the desert plains can be covered with a plethora of short annual grass. However, in more normal years, the plains can appear empty with the annual plants staying in the form of seeds.46
The tsamma melon is a desert watermelon that can be a source of water. The flesh is white and bitter. The !Kung people drink its juice and use its flesh as a body scrub to clean up and cool down. The tsamma melon provides the necessary hydration for hunting. The seeds of the melon are nutrient dense, and the flesh has a very-high water content. It has been said that people can survive on only this melon for a long period of time.47
Another plant is the Hoodia gordonii. This is a cactus like succulent plant. This plant can be peeled. You can chew on the bitter, inside flesh. It is quite bitter, but it can help a hungry belly. If the day’s hunt was unsuccessful, it can make you feel full. The !Kung have been known to suck on Hoodia as the whole fresh plant, or the dried-out plant for some time.48 It has been known to fight hunger and thirst during long hunting trips. It has gained in popularity today in the United States and around the world because it has been used as a dietary supplement to aid in weight loss.
Animals of the African Desert
Just like the other biomes, there are many animals that live and adapt to the desert biome. The hot environment requires the animals to adapt to the arid conditions, winds, and intense heat. Because of the characteristics of the biome, the mammals are relatively small and able to meet their needs for water in their diet. The animals hunt and forage mainly at night when it is cool. The African desert biome is home to about 70 species of mammals, 90 species of birds, and 100 species of reptiles.49 The pam-pam bird, poison dart frog, gemsbok, ostrich, webbed footed gecko, and the naked mole rat are all found in the African desert.
One insect that can be found in the desert is the termite. Some of the research suggests that the large dirt mounds that termites create can be a key factor in making the deserts more resilient to climate change.50 The termite mounds allow water to better penetrate the soil, and to store water and nutrients in their internal tunnels. Termite habitats allow for a richer vegetation and decrease the amount of desertification by helping to protect from drought. 51
The fennec fox is another animal that has had to adapt to the desert conditions. The first thing that one notices is the large ears. They have a highly developed sense of hearing. These large ears can filter sound through the same and can also detect the differences of the calls of other fennec foxes. Their ears also help to disperse the heat and locate prey moving in the sand.52 The feet of the fennec fox are heavily furred. This protects their pads from the hot temperature while moving across the desert sand.53 Another type of adaptation they have is that they do not need to drink often. The plants they eat can be a source of water when in need.
There are other animals in the desert that also need to adapt to the arid conditions. The sandgrouse has strong wings that allow it to travel as long as 100 miles each day to a water source.54 It calls to others of its kind to take turns at a water hole. The dromedary has a large fatty hump that can be used for accessing water and energy when needed. It rarely sweats and can live without water for three weeks.55 The fog-drinking beetle collects water from the morning desert fog on the bumps on the beetle’s back. It then runs down channels to its mouth. The kangaroo rat has large legs for leaping fast.56
Indigenous People of the African Desert – The !Kung
The !Kung people have lived in the African desert for thousands of years. They are one of the few holy tribes still living on their ancestral land. !Kung are traditional tribal religionists whose religion is similar to Christianity. The symbols of their spirituality are celestial bodies, such as the stars, sun, and moon.57. The !Kung also often dance near a fire. They believe that by doing this, they will gain the power to heal. The !Kung spiritual leaders serve as the tribes’ diviners and healers. Another important aspect in the life of the !Kung are legends. Each legend is based on a tribe member’s view of the supernatural and explains some aspect of the divine.58
In the tribe, everyone is equal. Even the best hunters or gatherers are do not receive special treatment. Traditionally, the !Kung were nomadic in order to follow the water. When it rained, they built shelters each night, moving constantly in search of green plants. In the dry season, they built larger huts in a circle around permanent waterholes. Now, they are semi-nomadic. They will move their camps at irregular intervals. Because of varying factors, some of the !Kung people have been forced to abandon their traditional hunting and gathering way of life. There are only a few thousand left that are still living by traditional hunting and gathering techniques.59
The bush-living people manage to survive primarily on wild game meat and vegetable foods. Most plants are dead or dormant during the dry season and nuts are all that can be gathered. Meat is practically important during the dry months when the wildlife cannot travel far from the waterholes.60 The !Kung people know which plants have roots that store water. In order to live off of the land in this way, you need a lot of land to roam. Farming and parks have left the people with much less land than they once had. The reserve is only one fourth of the land that they once had. There is not enough land for them to live as hunter gatherers as they used to. Many have been forced to now farm themselves, or work on nearby farms.61
Figure 4. Kalahari Desert 62
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