Content Objectives
This unit provides explicit guidance for constructing defensible arguments. By foregrounding the necessity of summarizing counterarguments fairly and then refuting them, the book cultivates skills necessary for persuasive academic writing.
Guiding students through summarizing and quoting sources accurately is a skill worth developing because it is critical in defending their position. Students should also be reminded that quoting sources such as peer-reviewed journals lends credibility to their argument and is essential when countering opposing points of view.
Students should be able to anticipate and respond to opposing views within their essays. Students fortify their arguments, a practice that is essential for producing a persuasive and defensible essay. I pride myself on instilling a sense of accomplishment and motivation in students and inspiring them to engage more deeply in their writing.
This unit provides teachers with ideas that go beyond listing principles. The contents of this unit are composed of research and classroom implementation of the pedagogical practices detailed herein that have contributed to improved student outcomes.
Analysis of Primary Text Used in this Curriculum Unit
In addition to scholarly articles and various books, my unit will use two primary source texts to support the lessons. I have chosen these texts partly because they are well-known, but also because they offer practical methods to use in the classroom for the seasoned teacher as well as for the increasing number of emergency certified and aspiring teachers who have entered this noble profession.
Analysis of “They Say, I Say: The Moves that Matter in Academic Writing with Readings,” by Graff, Birkenstein, and Durst.
“They Say, I Say has become a cornerstone in academic writing pedagogy. The book’s practical approach, focusing on the underlying rhetorical moves that define effective argumentation, makes it invaluable for both students learning and teachers instructing persuasive essay writing. At its heart, “They Say, I Say” introduces students to the fundamental rhetorical practice of entering a conversation—responding to what “they say” before stating “I say.” The authors argue that academic writing is essentially a form of dialogue, where writers position themselves in relation to others’ claims.10 A key feature of this book is its emphasis on how to empower students in their writing. For instance, Chapter 1 introduces the basic “They Say, I Say” structure, allowing students to confidently acknowledge existing arguments (“they say”) before presenting their stance.11 These templates are not prescriptive, but rather, they serve as springboards for students to develop their unique voices within an argumentative framework, instilling a sense of confidence and capability. “They Say, I Say” is particularly valuable for teachers aiming to instruct students in persuasive writing. Its accessible structure and reproducible templates provide instructors with concrete tools for lesson planning and scaffolding.
- Structured Approach: The templates offer a straightforward, stepwise method for building arguments, making it easier for teachers to model and for students to follow.12
- Critical Engagement: By emphasizing the importance of counterargument and synthesis, the book encourages higher-order thinking skills.13
- Reproducible Activities: The readings and exercises, such as the 'They Say, I Say,' structure and the 'Three Ways to Respond' templates, can be readily adapted to classroom practice, supporting differentiated instruction for students at various proficiency levels.14 Focus on Transferability: The rhetorical moves outlined are not discipline-specific, enabling teachers to foster writing skills that transfer across contexts.
“They Say, I Say, equips both students and teachers with a practical, effective framework for academic argumentation. By making rhetorical moves explicit and accessible through templates and readings, the book demystifies persuasive writing. Teachers, in particular, benefit from a clear pedagogical roadmap for instructing students in the construction of defensible, persuasive argument essays.
Analysis of “Teaching Argument Writing” by George Hillocks, Jr.
"Teaching Argument Writing" by George Hillocks, Jr. is a source of quality information that empowers educators with practical, research-based methods. These methods are designed to help high school students develop the skills needed to craft well-defended, persuasive argument essays. Hillock's book is informed by years of classroom experience and scholarship, not only addressing the mechanics of argument but also the deeper skills of analysis, research, and critical thinking. The instructional strategies and frameworks presented in this book have been successfully implemented in high schools across the United States, demonstrating their practical value in real educational settings.
Hillocks adopts a process-oriented, inquiry-based approach to argument writing. He moves beyond formulaic instruction, urging teachers to foster an environment where students actively investigate claims, evidence, and reasoning. According to Hillocks, "students must be taught not only to state claims but to defend them with credible evidence and sound reasoning."15 The book is organized into clear, manageable chapters that guide teachers through the stages of teaching argument, from the foundations of claim and evidence to counterarguments and rebuttals.
One of the central tenets of Hillocks’ pedagogy is that argument writing is inseparable from critical thinking. He writes, "Effective argument demands that students weigh evidence, consider multiple perspectives, and anticipate counterarguments."16 Teachers will find practical strategies for engaging students in activities that require evaluation and synthesis of information, enabling them to move beyond superficial responses and develop nuanced perspectives. Hillocks provides classroom-tested activities, such as role-plays and debates, which scaffold the habits of mind central to critical inquiry.17 These activities have been widely adopted in high school classrooms throughout America, attesting to their effectiveness.
Hillocks emphasizes the importance of equipping students with the ability to seek out, evaluate, and integrate evidence from a range of sources: "Students must learn to distinguish credible from non-credible sources, and to use research effectively to support their positions."18 The book contains lesson plans and checklists for teaching source evaluation, 25 and for integrating research skills into the argumentative writing process.19 Teachers are encouraged to design inquiry-based tasks that require students to conduct independent research, thereby reinforcing information literacy. These methods have been incorporated into American high school curricula, where they have helped students strengthen their research and argumentation skills.
"Teaching Argument Writing" integrates reading and writing instruction, providing teachers with tools to help students critically engage with texts. Hillocks asserts, "Argument writing begins with reading—students must be able to identify and analyze claims and evidence in texts before constructing their arguments."20 He outlines exercises in close reading and annotation that prepare students to dissect complex readings and respond thoughtfully.21 These approaches have been widely put into practice in American high schools, yielding measurable improvements in students’ reading comprehension.
Hillocks offers step-by-step guidance on constructing clear, logical, and persuasive essays. He breaks down the elements of argument—claims, warrants, evidence, counterarguments, and rebuttals —and shows teachers how to help students weave these together into coherent essays.22 Model outlines, sample student essays, and scoring rubrics are provided, making assessments transparent and manageable.23 Through sequenced instruction, students build confidence and fluency in academic writing conventions. The practical frameworks described in the book have been leveraged by educators in high schools throughout the United States with great success.
Why High Schools Should Use This Book
My use of this book has helped me to equip my students with tools to write effective argument essays and to become thoughtful, persuasive communicators in any field.
Evidence-Based Practices: Hillocks’s recommendations are rooted in extensive classroom research and are adaptable to diverse classrooms, as demonstrated by widespread use in American high schools.
Practical Tools: The book is replete with valuable tools such as lesson plans, activities, and assessment tools that can be implemented immediately. These resources, found on pages 146–150, provide educators with a clear roadmap for implementing the strategies and methodologies presented in the book, making it a valuable resource for busy teachers. Teaching Argument Writing by George Hillocks, Jr. places a strong focus on autonomy.
Hillocks encourages teachers to gradually release responsibility to students, promoting independence and ownership of learning. This approach respects the students' abilities and fosters a sense of trust, making them feel respected and valued in the learning process. “Teaching Argument Writing" by George Hillocks, Jr. aligns well with Common Core and other educational standards, emphasizing argument and evidence.
Hillocks provides an indispensable resource for high school teachers seeking to elevate their students’ argumentative writing. By emphasizing critical thinking, research, reading comprehension, and structured academic writing, the book provides both philosophical underpinnings and practical solutions for classroom instruction. The fact that its strategies and methodologies have been widely used in American high schools is a testament to their efficacy and relevance. Teachers who adopt Hillocks’s strategies will be well-equipped to help their students become thoughtful, articulate, and independent writers—skills essential for both academic and civic life.
Student Exploration of the Persuasive Argument Writing Process
My students explore and examine the persuasive argumentative writing process, utilizing a series of ideas to improve the structure and content of their essays. For example, modeling, using sentence frames and scaffolds, and integrating peer and teacher feedback specific to content and grammar prove beneficial in teaching persuasive argument essay writing. (See Zwiers, 201, p. 44; Short and Fitzimmons, 2007, p. 21)
Students will gain valuable insights into the writing process by analyzing the writings of authors whose essays have been published in esteemed academic journals. This exercise is beneficial for students who are learning to speak and write in English. Pauline Gibbons, author of The Benefits of “Using Scaffolding Language, Scaffolding Learning: Teaching English Language Learners in the Mainstream Classroom,” notes that “frequent reading and writing of varied sentence types enable English learners to internalize the structures of academic discourse.24 This approach to improving the writing skills of all my students emphasizes the need to use comparative modeling and reading examples of counterargument structures in the formation of persuasive essays, simplifying the process for my multilingual students. (For an in-depth look at this approach, see Zwiers, Building Academic Language, 2014)
Iron Sharpens Iron – Thoughts on Enhancing Pedagogical Practice of Effective Writing
This curriculum unit is written in a manner that will allow teachers to “eat the meat of the unit content,” which will nourish their appetite for improving their pedagogical practice. I believe that Klinkenborg's wit, humor, and insights into the writing process will be a valuable resource for both teachers and students. In one place, he writes, “Most of the sentences you make will need to be killed. The rest will need to be fixed. This will be true for a long time.”25 Sharing this Klinkenborg anecdote with your students will go a long way in stifling the angst many students experience when attempting to write anything of substance, and no less something of academic-level quality. “Argumentative essays are designed to persuade readers of the validity of the writer's perspective while addressing counterarguments.”26
During the Yale National Initiative 2025 intensive seminar on writing and revision that I attended, participants were asked to read Several Short Sentences About Writing by Verlyn Klinkenborg. I highly recommend this resource to teachers because it offers excellent advice for students learning how to write clear and compelling sentences. In this curriculum unit, teachers should consider incorporating exercises where students write multiple short sentences on a topic and then discuss which ones are clearest and why.
The adage “Reading is fundamental” is of paramount importance in the writing process. I agree with Klinkenborg when he writes, “You can only become a better writer by becoming a better reader.”27 High School juniors and seniors should be reading at or above their grade level, and ideally, when engaging in the art of writing an effective argumentative essay. Reading not only enhances vocabulary and language skills but also exposes students to different perspectives and arguments, which is crucial for practical argumentation. Graff, Birkenstein, and Durst argue that 'the best academic writing has one underlying feature: it is deeply engaged in some way with other people's views.”28
One vital way to enhance the reading comprehension skills of high school juniors and seniors is by teaching categorical and relational concepts. These concepts enable students to identify and understand the essential relationships within texts. Categorical concepts focus on organizing information into classifications or groups based on shared qualities, while relational concepts emphasize understanding the connections and interactions between ideas.
For example, when students read a text about climate change, categorical concepts can help them distinguish between different categories, such as 'natural causes' and 'human-induced causes.' In contrast, relational concepts can help them analyze how these causes contribute to the overall problem. Similarly, when authoring an argumentative essay on a social issue, categorical concepts can help students categorize different perspectives or arguments. In contrast, relational concepts can help them analyze the connections between these perspectives. Mastering these skills enables students to approach texts with greater clarity and insight, thereby enhancing their ability to extract meaning and evaluate arguments.30
This unit offers an informal guide for writing an effective argumentative essay that consists of the following:
Understanding the Structure of a Persuasive Argument Essay
Developing a Clear Thesis Statement
Research and Use of Evidence
Addressing Counterarguments
Logical Reasoning
Crafting Persuasive Introductions and Conclusions
Effective Use of Rhetorical Devices
Clarity, Style, and Tone
Citation – Credible sources
Persuasive Argument Essay Building Blocks
Before they write, I encourage my students to read and analyze the essay promptly. The essay prompt includes selecting peer-reviewed research articles. Students must read their chosen article and identify the central issue, as well as whether the author has taken a clear and defensible stance. I instruct my students to annotate their chosen article, jot down initial thoughts, and use their findings to craft an argument for their essays. The goal is to guide my students to select a position they can support with evidence.
Throughout the Persuasive Argument essay writing process, students work in small groups to discuss the purpose of an argumentative essay. During these breakout sessions, they analyze each other’s work to ensure that the essays are clear and that each student has established a reasoned position on a debatable issue, supported by evidence and analysis. This introductory section should define key concepts and outline expectations for persuasive writing.31
I impress upon my students that before drafting an essay, writers must clarify their purpose and understand their audience. As Graff and Birkenstein note, "effective academic writing engages in a conversation, responding to what others have said."32. This means writers should anticipate their readers' expectations and possible objections. Hillocks further emphasizes that "successful argument writing begins with a clear conception of the rhetorical situation, the audience, and the purpose."33
Crafting a Clear Arguable Thesis
Hillocks asserts, "a good argument begins with a claim that is contestable and significant."34 The student's thesis should reflect a clear stance, inviting discussion rather than closing it. I inform my students that the thesis should be written in terms that are specific and debatable, not a statement of fact. “Position the claim in a way that connects to the broader conversation.”35 I encourage my students to preview the main supporting reasons or lines of argument.
Organizing and Developing the Argument
Throughout the persuasive argumentative essay writing process, it is a beneficial practice to remind my students that the structure of an argumentative essay typically includes an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. As Hillocks explains, "evidence and reasoning must be logically developed and connected to the claim."36
To help my students better understand the structural flow of a persuasive argument essay, I provide them with the following information as a writing enhancement checklist.
Introduction
Open with context, background, or a provocative question to engage readers.
Summarize 'they say'—the existing conversation or counterarguments.
Students should state their thesis and outline the structure of their reasoning.37
Body Paragraphs
Each body paragraph should focus on a single supporting point, following a logical progression of ideas. To help my students understand the concept of a logical progression of ideas in an argumentative essay, I provide them with the following instructions. I also give them a sample argumentative essay and research tips.
Begin with a topic sentence that relates directly to the thesis.
Present evidence: facts, statistics, examples, or expert testimony 38
Analyze evidence, explaining how it supports your claim.
Use transitions and metacommentary to guide readers through your argument 39
Counterarguments and Rebuttals
Addressing opposing views not only enhances your credibility but also deepens your argument. As Graff and Birkenstein point out, a writer’s credibility is enhanced by summarizing and responding to counterarguments.40 This skill is not just a suggestion, but a crucial element in crafting a persuasive argument. Hillocks further emphasizes that “anticipating and refuting counterclaims is essential to persuasive argument”41 reinforcing the importance of this practice in students’ writing.
Summarize counterarguments accurately and fairly.
Point out flaws, limitations, or misconceptions in opposing views.
Concede valid points where appropriate but explain why your argument remains stronger.
The Persuasive Argument Essay Conclusion
Students must write their essay conclusion with an emphasis on resolving challenges to their claim(s) and explaining the legitimacy of their argument. Graff and Birkenstein suggest that “a strong conclusion should answer the ‘so what?’ and ‘who cares?’ questions, highlighting the stakes of your argument.”38
Hillocks stresses, “the quality and relevance of evidence are central to the strength of an argument.”35 This means that the evidence you choose to support your claims is not just a formality, but a powerful tool that can significantly bolster your argument. All evidence should be attributed, explained, and woven seamlessly into your prose, ensuring that your argument is not just persuasive but also well-supported.
I encourage my students to select evidence that is credible, current, and directly supports their claims. I model how to integrate quotations and paraphrases smoothly, providing context and interpretation.42
Peer Review Workshops
After drafting their essays, I instruct my students to exchange papers with classmates and provide them with a guided rubric to offer constructive feedback on thesis statements, evidence, organization, and style. This practice promotes collaborative learning, helps them to improve their revision skills, and encourages the practice of self-reflection. The point here is that the practice of peer review promotes high-quality revisions and enhances the content and outcomes of persuasive argument essay writing.
Revising and Refining the Essay
Exceptional argumentative essays are refined through revision. Hillocks underscores that “revising for clarity, coherence, and logical progression is crucial to effective argument writing.” 43
Comments: