Notes
1 “CDC NERD Academy Student Quick Learn: How Does Disease Spread?”, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), February 24, 2022, video, 12:42, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1QLgXzyXOH0, at 9:29.
2 “Back of The Yards College Preparatory High School.” US News & World Report. Accessed July 10, 2025. https://www.usnews.com/education/best-high-schools/illinois/districts/chicago-public-schools/back-of-the-yards-college-prepatory-high-school-154071.
3 “60609,” Stanford Data Commons, Stanford University, Accessed July 10, 2025, https://datacommons.stanford.edu/place/zip/60609.
4 Michael Wilson and Philippa J.K. Wilson, “Microbes and Infectious Diseases,” In: Close Encounters of the Microbial Kind, 3, Springer, Cham, 2021.
5 Anil Kumar and Nikita Chordia, “Role of Microbes in Human Health,” Applied Microbiology: Open Access 3, no. 2 (2017), https://doi.org/10.4172/2471-9315.1000131.
6 Alexander Sulakvelidze, Zempira Alavidze, and J. Glenn Morris, “Bacteriophage Therapy,” Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 45, no. 3 (2001): 650, https://doi.org/10.1128/aac.45.3.649-659.2001.
7 Howard Gest, The Discovery of Microorganisms Revisited (November 6, 2004), https://www.bellarmine.edu/faculty/dobbins/Secret%20Readings/Historical/Hooke-Leeuwenhoek.pdf.
8 Theodore H. Tulchinsky, “John Snow, Cholera, the Broad Street Pump; Waterborne Diseases Then and Now,” in Case Studies in Public Health (2018), 79, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-804571-8.00017-2.
9 Tulchinsky, “John Snow, Cholera,” 79.
10 Tulchinsky, “John Snow, Cholera,” 82-83.
11 Kasireddy Sravanthi, Krishna Sailaja Sattiraju, Sheuli Paul, N. G. Nihal, Shradha Salunkhe, and Shailaja V. Mane, “Robert Koch: From Anthrax to Tuberculosis – A Journey in Medical Science,” Cureus, 2024, 3, https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.72955.
12 Philip C. W. Cheung, “A Historical Review of the Benefits and Hypothetical Risks of Disinfecting Drinking Water by Chlorination,” Journal of Environment and Ecology 8, no. 1 (2017): 73, https://doi.org/10.5296/jee.v8i1.11338.
13 Wilson and Wilson, Microbes and Infectious Diseases, 8.
14 Michael B. A. Oldstone, Viruses, Plagues, and History: Past, Present, and Future (New York: Oxford University Press, 2020), 11.
15 Wilson and Wilson, Microbes and Infectious Diseases, 8.
16 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Signs and Symptoms of Flu,” Influenza (Flu), last modified August 26, 2024, accessed July 15, 2025, https://www.cdc.gov/flu/signs-symptoms/index.html.
17 William F. Carman and James B. Mahony, “The Pathogens,” Journal of Clinical Virology 40 (2007): S7.
18 Deborah Grennan, “What Is a Pandemic?” JAMA 321, no. 9 (2019): 910, https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2019.0700.
19 Grennan, “What Is a Pandemic?,” 910.
20 Luke Taylor, “Covid-19: WHO Maintains That Pandemic Is Still a Public Health Emergency of International Concern,” BMJ: British Medical Journal 377 (May 6, 2022): o1144, https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.o1144.
21 Our World in Data, Measles Cases and Deaths in the United States, accessed July 13, 2025, https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/measles-cases-and-death?tab=table&yScale=log.
22 Teddy Rosenbluth and Jonathan Corum, “Measles Cases Hit Highest Total Since U.S. Eliminated the Disease,” The New York Times, July 9, 2025.
23 Klaus Dietz, “The Estimation of the Basic Reproduction Number for Infectious Diseases,” Statistical Methods in Medical Research 2, no. 1 (1993): 23–41, https://doi.org/10.1177/096228029300200103.
24 “CDC NERD Academy,” CDC, 2:59.
25 “CDC NERD Academy,” CDC, 5:15.
26 “CDC NERD Academy,” CDC, 5:45.
27 Lidia Morawska et al., “Coronavirus Disease 2019 and Airborne Transmission: Science Rejected, Lives Lost. Can Society Do Better?,” Clinical Infectious Diseases 76, no. 10 (May 15, 2023): 1854–1859, https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciad068; Kimberly Randall et al., “How Did We Get Here: What Are Droplets and Aerosols and How Far Do They Go? A Historical Perspective on the Transmission of Respiratory Infectious Diseases,” Interface Focus 11, no. 6 (2021): 2–3, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsfs.2021.0049.
28 Oldstone, Viruses, Plagues, and History, 44.
29 María Cruz Minguillón et al., Guide for Ventilation Towards Healthy Classrooms (December 2020), http://hdl.handle.net/10261/225519.
30 Minguillón et al., Guide for Ventilation, http://hdl.handle.net/10261/225519.
31 Hiroshi Ueki, Yuri Furusawa, Kiyoko Iwatsuki-Horimoto, Masaki Imai, Hiroki Kabata, Hidekazu Nishimura, and Yoshihiro Kawaoka, “Effectiveness of Face Masks in Preventing Airborne Transmission of SARS-CoV-2,” mSphere 5, no. 5 (2020): e00637-20, https://doi.org/10.1128/msphere.00637-20.
32 Ueki et al., “Effectiveness of Face Masks,” mSphere 5, no. 5 (2020): e00637-20.
33 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), About Physical Distancing and Respiratory Viruses, published March 1, 2024, https://www.cdc.gov/respiratory-viruses/prevention/physical-distancing.html; and World Health Organization (WHO), Western Pacific Region, Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19): Physical Distancing, accessed July 28, 2025, https://www.who.int/westernpacific/emergencies/covid-19/information/physical-distancing.
34 Alibek Issakhov, Yeldos Zhandaulet, Perizat Omarova, Aidana Alimbek, Aliya Borsikbayeva, and Ardak Mustafayeva, “A Numerical Assessment of Social Distancing of Preventing Airborne Transmission of COVID-19 during Different Breathing and Coughing Processes,” Scientific Reports 11 (2021): 9412, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-88645-2.
35 “CDC NERD Academy,” CDC, 7:00.
36 Veysel Kayser and Iqbal Ramzan, “Vaccines and Vaccination: History and Emerging Issues,” Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics 17, no. 12 (2021): 5255–68, https://doi.org/10.1080/21645515.2021.1977057.
37 American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air‑Conditioning Engineers, Addendum n to ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62‑2001: Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality (Washington, DC: ASHRAE, 2003), 7, PDF, accessed July 15, 2025, https://www.ashrae.org/File%20Library/Technical%20Resources/Standards%20and%20Guidelines/Standards%20Addenda/62-2001/62-2001_Addendum-n.pdf.
38 Venkata Arumuru, Rajesh Kusuluri, and Dinesh Mirikar, “Role of Face Masks and Ventilation Rates in Mitigating Respiratory Disease Transmission in ICU,” Scientific Reports 13 (2023): 11, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-38031-x.
39 Venkata Arumuru et al., “Role of Face Masks and Ventilation Rates in Mitigating Respiratory Disease Transmission in ICU,” Scientific Reports 13 (2023): 11.
40 “CDC NERD Academy,” CDC, 5:45.
41 InformedHealth.org, In Brief: The Innate and Adaptive Immune Systems (Cologne, Germany: Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care [IQWiG], 2006–, updated August 14, 2023), https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279396/.
42 InformedHealth.org, In Brief: The Innate and Adaptive Immune Systems.
43 Akiko Iwasaki and Saad B. Omer, “Why and How Vaccines Work,” Cell 183, no. 2 (October 15, 2020): 294, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2020.09.040.
44 Jean-Louis Excler, Melanie Saville, Seth Berkley, and Jerome H. Kim, “Vaccine Development for Emerging Infectious Diseases,” Nature Medicine 27 (2021): 594, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-021-01301-0.
45 Ben Ashby and Alex Best, “Herd Immunity,” Current Biology 31, no. 4 (2021): R176, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2021.01.006.
46 Seyed Mohammad Reza Hashemian et al., “Paxlovid (Nirmatrelvir/Ritonavir): A New Approach to Covid-19 Therapy?” Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy 162 (June 2023): 114367, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2023.114367.
47 Nicholas E. Ingraham et al., “Immunomodulation in COVID-19,” The Lancet Respiratory Medicine 8, no. 6 (2020): 544, https://doi.org/10.1016/s2213-2600(20)30226-5.
48 Sarvnaz S. Toussi et al., “Therapeutics for COVID-19,” Nature Microbiology 8 (2023): 774, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41564-023-01356-4.
49 Tim R. Mercer and Marc Salit, “Testing at Scale during the COVID-19 Pandemic,” Nature Reviews Genetics 22, no. 7 (2021): 420.
50 Mercer and Salit, “Testing at Scale,” 422.
51 Peccia, Jordan, Alicia Zulli, Devin E. Brackney, et al. “Measurement of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in Wastewater Tracks Community Infection Dynamics.” Nature Biotechnology 38 (2020): 1167. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41587-020-0684-z.
52 Juhwan Oh, Jong-Koo Lee, Dan Schwarz, Hannah L. Ratcliffe, Jeffrey F. Markuns, and Lisa R. Hirschhorn, “National Response to COVID-19 in the Republic of Korea and Lessons Learned for Other Countries,” Health Systems & Reform 6, no. 1 (2020), https://doi.org/10.1080/23288604.2020.1753464.
53 Oh et al., “National Response to COVID-19 in the Republic of Korea,” Health Systems & Reform 6, no. 1 (2020): e1753464-7.
54 Tim Forster and Mirko Heinzel, “Reacting, Fast and Slow: How World Leaders Shaped Government Responses to the COVID-19 Pandemic,” Journal of European Public Policy 28, no. 8 (2021): 1307, https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2021.1942157.
55 Statista, “Number of Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) Deaths Worldwide as of May 2, 2023, by Country and Territory,” accessed July 15, 2025, https://www.statista.com/statistics/1093256/novel-coronavirus-2019ncov-deaths-worldwide-by-country/.
56 Anders Björkman, Magnus Gisslén, Martin Gullberg, and Johnny Ludvigsson, “The Swedish COVID-19 Approach: A Scientific Dialogue on Mitigation Policies,” Frontiers in Public Health 11 (July 20, 2023): 1206732, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1206732.
57 Lidia Morawska et al., “How Can Airborne Transmission of COVID-19 Indoors Be Minimized?” Environment International 142 (September 2020): 105832, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.105832.
58 Morawska et al., “Airborne Transmission of COVID-19 Indoors,” 105832.
59 Morawska et al., “Airborne Transmission of COVID-19 Indoors,” 105832.
60 Morawska et al., “Airborne Transmission of COVID-19 Indoors,” 105832.
61 Gary A. Morris and Ryan Cannady, “Proper Use of the Hierarchy of Controls,” Professional Safety 64 (2019): 38.
62 Michael R. Matthews, “Models in Science and in Science Education: An Introduction,” Science & Education 16, no. 7–8 (2007): 648, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11191-007-9089-3.
63 Yuliya Ardasheva, Penny B. Howell, and Margarita Vidrio Magaña, “Accessing the Classroom Discourse Community through Accountable Talk: English Learners’ Voices,” TESOL Journal 7, no. 3 (2016): 669, https://doi.org/10.1002/tesj.237.
64 Mayo Clinic Staff, “Science Saturday: Antibody Testing, in Pictures,” Mayo Clinic News Network, April 18, 2020; Julia Sonnevend, “A Virus as an Icon: The 2020 Pandemic in Images,” American Journal of Cultural Sociology 8, no. 3 (2020): 451–461, https://doi.org/10.1057/s41290-020-00118-7.
65 “CDC NERD Academy,” CDC, 12:42; and C. Raina MacIntyre et al., UNSW/Thorax: Visualizing the Importance of Masks in Stopping COVID-19 Spread, YouTube video, 1:49, premiered July 27, 2020, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZqZLMoLvhgk.
Comments: