Objectives
My unit will begin by introducing students to elementary examples of poetry containing various forms of figurative language and literary device, such as alliteration, repetition (anaphora), rhythm, rhymes, idioms, metaphors, etc. In order to teach these devices, it is imperative to have a complete understanding of each one. Not only should the students possess the ability to identify various figurative language and literary devices in poetry, they should also acquire background knowledge about the author who wrote the poem. Along with learning each device, the students will be taught background information about the author, why the author chooses a specific literary device or piece of figurative language to create the poem and the effect it has on the reader. All of this will allow the students to have exposure to reading, to analyze on their own with the help of orchestrated strategies and experiencing the way poetry can tell a story.
Literary Devices
Repetition
Many times in a poem you will see repeating words, phrases, lines or stanzas. Poets choose to add repetition to their writing to stress a point in the poem, articulate a meaning, or evoke compassionate feelings. There are many words used to describe the numerous forms of repetition. When reading or writing a poem, it is necessary to remember what you feel the need to emphasize, and use or recognize the appropriate style for that purpose. I have chosen to focus specifically on anaphora. Anaphora is repeating the same word or cluster of words within the poem. William Shakespeare does a wonderful job illustrating anaphora in Sonnet 66. Ten of the fourteen lines in the sonnet begin with "and." The repetition used in this poem helps to intensify the emotion he intended for the audience along with giving the reader a sense of the meter.
Because I will have given the students something to read by Shakespeare, I should also tell them something about him. Shakespeare was born on April 23, 1564. In 1566 he married Anne Hathaway and fathered two daughters and a son. There is not much information about Shakespeare between 1585 and 1592; from 1593 to 1601, we know that he created many of his sonnets. 2 Shakespeare was a master at finding words for writing of calamity and for the "immortalization of beauty and love in poetry." 3
To return then to the formal features of the poems we'll be studying: in addition to repetition of words and phrases, there is also repetition of sounds. Alliteration resembles certain tongue twisters, as it is the repetition of beginning consonant sounds. Historically it has developed largely through poetry, in which it more narrowly refers to the repetition of a consonant in any syllables that, according to the poem's meter 4, are stressed, as in Robert Frost's poem, "Acquainted With The Night ": I have stood still and stopped the sound of feet. 5 The poem I will use with my students to teach alliteration is "Nothing Gold Can Stay" by Robert Frost.
Frost was born in 1874 in San Francisco. It wasn't until he was in high school that poetry and writing became an interest. Many of his poems were related to rural life in New England, where he lived most of his life. 6
Rhythm and Rhyme
Music is a substantial part of many young lives. Children can hear a song and within a day they can have it memorized. A significant reason for this is the rhythm, or beat, of the song. Rhythm also plays an extensive role in poetry. Rhythm can be measured in terms of heavily stressed to less stressed syllables. Rhythm is measured in feet, units of which most often consist in one heavily accented syllable and one or more lightly accented syllables. 7
Rhythm and rhyme in many instances work collaboratively. Rhyme is the repetition of sounds or similar words at the end of two or more lines. 8 Poems with rhyme often have stanzas made up of a couplet, tercet or quatrain. Some poems are comprised of two of the three styles. A couplet consists of two lines that end with rhyming words, while a tercet usually has three lines with a rhyming pattern consisting of aba. Quatrains consist of four lines with a rhyming pattern. When you encounter a poem with a rhyme scheme it is usually simple to detect the pattern. To recognize a pattern, a letter of the alphabet, beginning with a, is assigned to the line. The pattern can differ from poem to poem resulting in patterns such as: abba or ababa. A quatrain never rhymes aaaa. For example, "Alone" by Edgar Allen Poe has a straightforward rhyme of an aabbcc and so on.
When a poem uses rhythm or rhyme or both, a reader is more likely to remember the content the poem was representing, whether the subject is numbers, the ABC's, colors, or the days in the months. A great poem to use for teaching rhythm and rhyme is, "Rhyming For So" by Paterika Hengreaves.
Double Meanings
Many poems, especially poems with compressed forms like Shakespeare's sonnets, use words with double meaning. For instance, in Sonnet 18, Shakespeare uses the word "fair": "And every fair from fair sometime declines." One would think fair could possibly mean reasonable or refer to one's skin tone. In actuality, Shakespeare intended for the word to mean, as a noun, attractive woman the first time, and then when it is repeated as an adjective it means being beautiful. Double meaning may not apply only to a word in the poem; the whole poem may have a double meaning. Learning the occasion of the poem or a biography of the writer can assist with such perplexities of interpretation. While researching poems on the internet I found a fantastic poem that will help students understand double meaning. It is aptly called "Double Meaning Poem." While you read the poem, you feel the author is speaking to a person they love, hoping they are parallel in their feelings. However, once you are finished reading the poem, you are directed to skip all even lines. In reality, the speaker of the poem is expressing severe dislike for the person and has absolutely no desire to have this person in their life. 9
Figurative Language
Metaphor and Simile
Metaphors compare two unlike objects, where as a simile compares two dissimilar things using like or as. Over the years of teaching, I have found that similes and metaphors are easy for the students to understand. "The Lighthouse" by Katherine Sessor is good to teach at this point because its metaphors and similes are prominent.
Personification
Personification gives human characteristics to nonliving objects. This, like similes and metaphors, is not a strange concept for students. Usually, they can identify personification instantly in a poem. "The Train" by Emily Dickinson uses personification to ascribe human qualities to a train's movement.
Emily Dickinson was born in 1830 in Massachusetts. For most of her adult life she lived in isolation from the outside world. Most of her contact with people was through letters. She was an avid reader and was deeply influenced by diverse people she would meet during her travels in books. 1 0 "Dickinson's poetry reflects her loneliness and the speakers of her poems generally live in a state of want, but her poems are also marked by the intimate recollection of inspirational moments that are decidedly life-giving and suggest the possibility of happiness." 1 1
Hyperbole
Hyperbole is the use of exaggeration. Students in my experience do not have trouble understanding this concept either. Using hyperbole in a poem helps to create a vivid image in the reader's mind. "Sarah Cynthia Sylvia Stout Would Not Take The Garbage Out" by Shel Silverstein does an outstanding job using hyperbole when he describes the garbage as "being piled up to the ceiling," "covering the floor," and blocking the door.
Shel Silverstein was twelve years old when he started writing. Because at that time he was not versed in the style of other poets, he developed his own. In the 1950's he joined the military and worked as a cartoonist for a United States military publication. Upon being released from the military, he worked as a cartoonist for a magazine until 1963 when Ursula Nordstrom encouraged him to write books of children's poetry. From 1964 to 1996 he published many books. While writing poetry for children, he also composed music and wrote plays. On May 10, 1999, Shel Silverstein passed away from a heart attack. 1 2
Imagery
Imagery is used in a poem to activate the reader's five senses. While imagery can be conveyed in simple terms, such as "The book is blue," many poets will often use similes and metaphors, or more elaborate description, to create a more intense image in the reader's mind. Through the use of imagery, a student will gain an intense impression of how something appears, smells, tastes, feels or sounds. It helps to create a visual picture. "The Shark" by Edwin John Pratt uses imagery to describe a shark. His way of characterizing the shark is spectacular. The detailed imagery creates a distinct, vivid representation of how the shark maneuvers through the water and would feel to one's touch.
Born in 1882 in Newfoundland, Edwin John Pratt (publishing name E. J. Pratt) was raised in a strict environment. While in college, he published his first poem. Many of his poems speak about "his Newfoundland background" and the concept of evolution. Pratt published many poems and founded the Canadian Poetry Magazine. 1 3
Mood
When a poet uses mood in their writing, they are trying to create a specific feeling within the reader. The mood of a poem can vary from enthusiasm to hatred. Creating a mood in a poem is a form of writing poets use to establish a closer connection to the reader. 1 4 A poet can accomplish this mission by "choice of words, summary of terms, symbolic language, and structure of the sentence, the length of each poetic line and the use of punctuation marks." 1 5 "A Mood," by Thomas Bailey Aldrich, reveals his hurt and sorrow.
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