Background Research
Perceived Intelligence Impediment
Before I can begin establishing trust with the students and addressing the skill deficiencies, I have to look under the hood, so to speak. When I take my vehicle to the mechanic to be repaired, I expect the mechanic to know how the vehicle is supposed to function so he/she will know how to diagnose and fix the problem, and I can get going on my merry way. Before I can 'look under the hood' of my student's academic difficulties, I need to investigate the components of the brain and how those components function so I can properly diagnose and treat the malfunction.
The reading issue does not stem from a lack of intelligence, however much the students and others want to believe it so. The students are born with their own unique blend of intelligences 9 and possess a certain level of practical intelligence. 1 0 In 1983 Howard Gardner, a professor in cognition and education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education, proposed a radical change to the beliefs about general intelligence: the Theory of Multiple Intelligences. 1 1 Robert Sternberg and associates also weighed in on the debate with a series of experiments investigating the presence of practical intelligence derived from achieving proficiency in a particular domain. These views were radically different from the prevalent view of intelligence acquisition held since 1869 when scientists in the fields of psychology and education first had grappled with classification, origination, and measurement of intelligence (IQ). Since 1869 the prevailing view of intelligence acquisition was based upon the notion of heritability proposed by Francis Galton which asserted the brain is immutable; 1 2 therefore, IQ is an inheritable mental acuity; it is fixed. 1 3 This view was used by Lewis Terman as the foundation of the original Stanford-Binet Scale of Intelligence. Terman believed, "revealing each person's [innate] intelligence would…help individuals find their rightful places in society and help society run more efficiently." 1 4
The fifth edition of the Stanford-Binet is still in use today as an educational tool. While the first edition was only designed to measure general intelligence and the fifth is designed to measure general intelligence in addition to knowledge, fluid reasoning, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, working memory, nonverbal IQ, and verbal IQ, 1 5 both editions are predicated upon the same idea: intelligence is genetically given, not acquired. 1 6
However, with his theory of multiple intelligences, Gardner confirmed the presence of an innate intelligence. 1 7 He put forth the view instead of there being one overall, all- encompassing intelligent quotient, there are seven different forms of intelligence. Gardner categorized the seven forms of intelligence as: musical, bodily/kinesthetic, logical/mathematical, verbal/linguistic, spatial, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. Within a decade from the original publication of the seven intelligences, Gardner added an eighth, naturalist, and is currently researching a ninth, existentialist. 1 8 The major assertion of the multiple intelligence theory is that each person possesses all of the intelligences in a unique combination (even twins are not exactly alike), and to be considered intelligent, the domain in which the person is operating must be considered as well as the field of those knowledgeable about said domain. 1 9 He defined intelligence as the "ability to solve problems, or to create products, that are valued within one or more cultur[al] settings." 2 0 In other words, my students are smart! Their lack of reading skill or performance is not reflective of their intelligence level. A key component of my job is to convince them of their unique combination of intelligence.
Authentic Trauma Impediment
It was not until I moved from the regular education classroom to teaching reluctant readers that I began to discern a common pattern among the underperforming children: the majority of them have 'a story'. In our tribe circle and small group discussions, I began to pick up on threads of commonality. The students had experienced some sort of traumatic event such as the death of a loved one, the absence of a parental figure, divorce, domestic violence, or neighborhood violence. The children would speak quite matter-of-factly about the incident or incidents in the case of a few of the students. It was as if they had dissociated themselves from the incident(s), just telling a story rather than having been a direct or indirect participant. I cannot pinpoint the exact moment I became aware their difficulties in school were directly connected to the trauma; the illumination occurred over time. I slowly began infusing more self-reflective activities into the lesson plans and taking more advantage of organic conversations to steer the students towards introspection. This experience led me to seek an opportunity to provide a well-thought out and planned curriculum unit specifically aimed at aiding the children in dealing with their trauma(s) so they could move on and be the tremendous people they are meant to be.
Upon investigation, I found research substantiating my observations. Graham et al 2 1 and Levine and Kline 2 2 found a large percentage of under performing children have suffered some type of trauma (i.e. divorce, domestic violence, abuse, abandonment, natural disaster) 2 3 that has seriously impeded or stunted their cognitive development and self efficacy. 2 4
Trauma Defined
I sought out as much information about trauma's effects on children from as many sources I could find. I sought out both books and journal articles. I sought current research coupled with information of a metaanalytical nature. In addition, I sought information from a variety of science disciplines. Trauma can be defined as something seemingly innocuous that has nevertheless caught us unawares and left us stunned, fearful, helpless, and disconnected, 2 5 or trauma can also be in the form of an overt life-altering experience such as divorce, a natural disaster, family violence, community violence, or the death of a significant relation. 2 6 "Trauma is the antithesis of empowerment." 2 7
Trauma and the Body
In terms of trauma's effects on the body, trauma dwells in the nervous system of the body. 2 8 When trauma is experienced, the amygdala is activated. The amygdala enlists many areas of the brain to help deal with the situation. Unfortunately, the cortex is unable to process the 'fear' signal and therefore is left a virtual captive to the amygdala, "hijacked by emotion". 2 9
In terms of the energy generated by the traumatic event, it is actually a simple law of physics, the Law of Conservation of Energy: the total amount of energy in the universe remains constant. The energy can change forms but can not be created or destroyed. The energy generated during the traumatic event must go somewhere. If the unresolved energy is allowed to 'linger' in the body, it materializes in a variety of internal manifestations heightening the central nervous system affecting attachment, affect regulation, and information processing. 3 0 Some of the effects of the unresolved energy manifest as hyperarousal, disorganization, over-reaction, social ineptness, rage, confusion, resistance to change, withdrawal, mental immobilization, aggression, lack of focus, inability to process information, guilt, or oversolicitation. 3 1 The child feels no one could possibly understand her/her circumstances and does not possess the skills to navigate through the frustration, disillusionment, and pain.
Trauma and Academic Achievement
The extent of the effects of the trauma depend upon the age at which the trauma occurs, the frequency (acute or chronic), and treatment of the traumatic effects upon the child. 3 2 It must be noted that not all children exhibiting these behaviors have experienced a traumatic event; however, research has established a strong causal connection between trauma and caustic conduct. 3 3
You recognize these children. Several of the more memorable children have mentally stayed with you. They come to mind, and you pause and wonder if they were able to ever get their act together. They are often viewed as the 'trouble children'. 3 4 Being a rocket scientist is not necessary to discern the causal connection between the PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder) type symptoms and their possible impact on the student's academic achievement. When children are unable to direct their attention towards the task at hand, they miss out on important (some would argue crucial) skills being addressed in the academic venue. The issue compounds each successive school year as the children virtually sleepwalk through school without having the trauma addressed. In terms of the effects upon the brain's actual structure, research shows that if left untreated, trauma has "lasting alterations on the HPA (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis) system and the norepinephrine systems as well as dysregulation in the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, and amygdala." 3 5
For many of the children by the time they reach middle school, the effects of the trauma (being either acute or chronic) have so pervaded their cognitive development, foundational skills are incomplete or missing altogether and their self-efficacy is pitifully dismal. All of this manifests itself in low to failing grades, behavior problems, absenteeism, disassociation, and ultimately, low test scores. 3 6 It is as if the trauma has pushed these children into a river. The river is so deep the children can not touch ground and so wide across they cannot see to the other side. The children begin to give up and just float along the river not realizing they are being damaged a little bit at a time by debris in the river and are slowly drowning. By middle school, they are emotionally and academically stunted. Passing a state test is the least of their worries.
New Brain Research
Remember the public service announcement (PSA) showing a hot, sizzling frying pan with a voice over equating the pan to your brain? The next image is of an egg frying in the pan and the voice-over analogizes the egg to your brain on drugs? The macabre message was one of eternal brain cell death: once some of one's finite number of cells were killed that is all that are available and not any more. This PSA was consistent with the hereditarian view of intelligence and brain development that had held firm since 1869 when Francis Galton's Hereditary Genius was published 3 7 asserting brain development 3 8 and intelligence were static. 3 9 What a person was genetically gifted with was all a person had to work with. As summarized by Begley, this long standing view held that "the adult brain is hardwired, fixed in form and function, so that by the time we reach adulthood, we are pretty much stuck with what we have." 4 0 In addition, the research maintained cognitive development occurred only during certain biological windows and once the window for a skill was closed, the opportunity was forever lost. 4 1
However, research from the late 1990s assures us that to a large extent, the public service announcement and hereditarian based science had it wrong. The late 1990s saw a revolution in the area of neurobiology in the areas of neurogenesis, neuroplasticity, and epigenesis. The science of neurogenesis discovered that new neurons can be produced in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus and olefactory bulbs of the brain. 4 2 The brain can grow new neurons. In order for the brain to keep a healthy balance of neurons, a natural pruning takes place disposing of brain cells long left dormant (supporting the use-it-or-lose-it rationale), but the process is natural and is not dependent upon any overt or conscious action of the owner of said cells. 4 3 The changing of the brain's wiring is the result of experience and mental activity. 4 4 Learning can literally alter the brain's structure. 4 5 In addition, the science of neuroplastity found the brain is somewhat plastic (it is as yet undetermined as to how open or plastic the brain will remain throughout the entirety of a lifespan) 4 6 and can actually be rewired through thought, feelings, and experience. 4 7 Plasticity is defined as the brain being amenable, modifiable, and malleable. 4 8 We now know our brains were custom built for plasticity, for lifelong adaptation through action or inaction. 4 9 Epigenetics concentrates on the information stored in the epigenome in the proteins and chemicals surrounding the DNA. The epigenome is the traffic conductor instructing certain genes to turn on or off and what to do where and when. Epigenetic scientists ascertained that feelings, thoughts, actions, and environment oversee the epigenome in deciding which genes are expressed or suppressed. 5 0 In other words, a symbiosis exists between one's choices, one's environment, and one's genes. 5 1
It is logical to surmise that if positive choices and environment can have a constructive impact upon gene expression, the vice versa will also hold true. When trauma causes the amygdala virtually to hold the cortex hostage, genes are adversely affected. If the hostage situation is protracted, the gene alteration could become permanent. 5 2 "Emotions literally have an anatomical mapping in the brain." 5 3 In other words, children who have experienced trauma and have become so stuck they have missed crucial skills can be taught the tools not only to reach the other side of the river but also to grow and thrive. "Biology is not destiny." 5 4
Brain-Based Learning
I liken the pairing of the neuroscience revolution with education as equally monumental as the pairing of Martin Luther's ninety-five theses with the invention of the printing press. Brain-based learning utilizes the current research from the work of cognitive sciences in the disciplines of neurology, biology, psychology, and education. The focus of brain-based learning is to enhance teacher instruction and develop the student's ability to learn in the way that neurologically works best for their brain. Brain-based learning also addresses emotional learning 5 5– the missing link in all of the NCLB movement. Emotion drives attention and attention drives learning. Brain-based learning approaches instruction in such a way as to teach in the way children learn. Gardner maintains that each one of us possesses his or her own unique combination of the eight intelligences; therefore, we are not all going to learn in the same way. Brain-based learning demands that teachers must address all of the eight intelligences when planning and executing instruction.
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